This file was prepared for electronic distribution by the inforM staff. Questions or comments should be directed to inform-editor@umail.umd.edu. TEACHING ABOUT VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AN INTERDISCIPLINARY RESOURCE GUIDE WS400: Issues in Feminist Theory and Method Tonia Trodahl Jennifer Sayles Jean Potuchek Jennifer McMahon Denise Maynard Lisa Kaugher Valerie Hoffman Christina Cammarata Katharine Burke Gettysburg College Gettysburg, Pennsylvania May, 1993 Contents Introduction Jean L. Potuchek Female Genital Mutilation Incorporating the Issue of Female Genital Mutilation in a Course on Contemporary Moral Issues Jennifer McMahon Incorporating the Issue of Female Genital Mutilation in a Course on African American Women Writers Denise Maynard Wife Abuse Incorporating the Issue of Wife Beating into a Sociology of Deviance Course Tonia Trodahl Incorporating Material on Wife Abuse in a Contemporary Women Writers Course Lisa Kaugher Rape Incorporating the Issue of Rape in a Core Liberal Arts Course Valerie Hoffman Incorporating the Issue of Rape into an Introductory Psychology Course Christina D. Cammarata Pornography Incorporating the Issue of Pornography into an Introductory Sociology Course Katharine F. Burke Incorporating the Issue of Pornography into a Sociology Course on Mass Media and Popular Culture Jennifer C. Sayles INTRODUCTION Jean L. Potuchek Gettysburg College is a small (2000 students) liberal arts college located in south central Pennsylvania. As is true in many places, concern has been growing here about violence against women and especially about sexual coercion and sexual violence on campus. The development during the past five years of a Women's Studies Program and a campus Women's Center have contributed to the increased visibility of and discussion about these issues. A "Take Back the Night" rally organized on campus during 1989 drew only a handful of people. A similar effort in 1992 attracted a large crowd of students, faculty and staff. This concern about sexual violence has included discussions about how to improve the climate for women on campus. About two years ago, as part of those discussions, the Women's Studies Program Advisory Council began to consider a project to educate students (and faculty) by incorporating material about sexual violence in courses across the curriculum. Such an educational initiative would be designed to problematize forms of violence and coercion that might be accepted as "normal" and thereby decrease the level of tolerance for such behavior, to bring hidden forms of violence to light, and to challenge myths about violence against women. This resource guide is a major component of that larger effort. This guide was produced by a group of senior Women's Studies students as a class project for Women's Studies 400: Issues in Feminist Theory and Methods, the required capstone course for the Women's Studies minor at Gettysburg College. This course helps students to integrate their knowledge of women's studies by systematically examining the variety of feminist perspectives on a particular topic. In 1992-93, the topic was "Violence Against Women." The purview of the course went beyond concerns with sexual violence on campus to consider a broader range of forms of violence and to examine them from a global perspective. We focused particularly on four topics: female genital mutilation, wife abuse, rape, and the question of whether pornography is a form of violence against women. Each of the eight students in the course developed an expert knowledge of feminist approaches to one of these four violence issues. Each student also identified a course already being offered at Gettysburg College which could appropriately include material about this form of violence, but which did not currently do so. Their task was to develop a resource guide for incorporating this material into these courses. The students who developed this guide come from a broad range of majors in the humanities and social sciences, including English, Music, Spanish, Psychology and Sociology, and the courses they chose to work on reflect the breadth of their interests. This guide has eight sections, each of which focuses on incorporating material on a particular form of violence against women into a particular course. In each section of the resource guide, we first provide an overview of the course, follow it with a detailed discussion of how material on sexual violence could be incorporated into the course, include an annotated bibliography of suggested readings for students and resources for faculty, and end with concrete examples of how to use this material in the classroom. This guide is intended for not only the instructors of these particular courses, but for faculty who teach related courses both at Gettysburg College and at other institutions, and for anyone who is interested in teaching about violence against women. A Project like this one cannot go forward without the help of many people. We would like to acknowledge several to whom we owe a special debt. Thanks go, first of all, to the members of the Women's Studies Program Advisory Council, who first developed the idea of incorporating material about rape across the curriculum. Two members of that group, Professors Sandra Gill and Helenmarie Hofman, were especially helpful in discussing ideas and providing suggestions during the early planning of this project. Kim Breighner, Chuck Mulleady and Gail Rankin of the Gettysburg College Computer Services provided timely help with several computer problems. Joyce Sprague, Administrative Assistant for the Women's Studies Program, gave her usual careful attention to the logistics of reproducing, binding and distributing this resource guide. Finally, we owe our greatest thanks to the Gettysburg College faculty members whose courses were used as the basis of this guide. They are Deborah Barnes, Neil Beach, Kathy Cain, Charles Emmons, Sandra Gill, Don Hinrichs, Jean Kuebler and Jan Powers. Without their gracious help and cooperation, this project would not have been possible. INCORPORATING THE ISSUE OF FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION IN A COURSE ON CONTEMPORARY MORAL ISSUES Jennifer McMahon Course Overview Contemporary Moral Issues is an introductory course that deals with a wide range of philosophical questions that face the people living in the world today. As a basis for analysis of these issues, different types of ethical theories are studied. Each issue is then evaluated from these and other Perspectives. Among the issues discussed in the course are abortion, animal rights, the environment, the role of business in society, human rights, poverty, medical ethics, violence, and sexual ethics. The foci of these debates are the responsibilities of the individual and the responsibilities of society. Questions like "Who makes these collective decisions?" are also asked within the context of the course. At the end of the course, the student should come away with a broader understanding of all of the larger issues that face society today. All perspectives are examined, and each student should arrive at a more personal view on how they are affected by each ethical problem. Incorporating the Issue of Genital Mutilation On a general level, the issue of Genital Mutilation can provide the class with an example of the problem of whether or not ethical problems can cross cultural bounds. Kenyatta's book, Facing Mount Kenya, and Mary Daly's Gyn/Ecology, are good sources for this type of debate. Daly makes the argument that charges of racism merely succeed in making genital mutilation not a women's issue, but one of race. Kenyatta is arguing the other point, that genital mutilation is a national tradition and should therefore only be the concern of the African people. This type of argument is very important to give students the opportunity to understand that cultural differences often complicate moral debates. Further along these same lines, possible examples of genital mutilation in American culture can be discussed. Good examples include the breast implant debate, as well as various other forms of plastic surgery. Mary Daly, in her book, Gyn/Ecology, discusses this dilemma in some depth. Genital mutilation also fits into the theme of this class as an example of human rights violations. Genital mutilation is an act of violence which still occurs today, on a large level, to women on the sole basis of their sex. When the issue is approached from this perspective, it becomes virtually impossible to deny that the human rights of these women have been violated. The question of who is deciding what is right for whom is evident in these examples of genital mutilation. The Hidden Face of Eve can be used to facilitate class discussion on this topic. El Saadawi gives a first hand account of her own experience with genital mutilation. El Saadawi's educated parents, influenced by societal pressure and Egyptian tradition, forced this operation on all of their daughters. Suggested Reading Assignments for Students Alice Walker, Possessing the Secret of Joy, New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1992. A literary presentation of an African American woman who chooses to have a clitoridectomy in order to follow Olinka tradition. Passages of this novel are a good choice for students because they help personalize the issue of genital mutilation. Professors may want to read the entire novel to decide which chapters can be used in conjunction with each section of the syllabus. Margot Badran and Miriam Cooke (editors), Opening the Gates: A Century of Arab Feminist Writing, Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University Press, 1990. The sections entitled "Zainaba" and "Lecture on Clitoridectomy to the Midwives of Touil, Mauntania" give an account of one attempt to work within the existing framework of African culture to bring about improvements in the medical practices of clitoridectomies. These articles present the reader with a different perspective (other than a Western one) on how change can occur in the area of genital mutilation. Mary Daly, Gyn/Ecology: The Meta-ethics of Radical Feminism, Boston, Ma.: Beacon Press, 1990. In chapter five, "African Genital Mutilation: Unspeakable Atrocities," Daly discusses how certain health organizations refuse to deal with this topic because of accusations of racism in regards to the issue of genital mutilation. Daly also discusses the components of the Sado-Ritual Syndrome, including the hermaphroditic myth, and the reason for the absence of men from the actual practice of female genital mutilation. Daly also investigates possible parallels of African genital mutilation to certain health trends in the United States today. Jomo Kenyatta, Facing Mount Kenya: The Tribal Life of Gikuyu, New York: Vintage Books, 1965. Jomo Kenyatta holds the opposite view of Mary Daly. He is writing from the perspective that genital mutilation is an African tradition, and for this reason, it is not a matter that should occupy international concern. It is not a women's issue, Kenyatta believes, but an issue of race and nationality. Chapter six entitled, "The Initiation of Boys and Girls" is a good example of these beliefs. Fran Hosken, The Hosken Report: Genital and Sexual Mutilation of Females, Lexington, Ma.: The Women's International Network News, 1982. Students should read the introductory chapter, as well as the chapter which presents Fran Hosken's personal opinions. This book is a collection of statistics that Hosken has compiled over the years in her studies of genital mutilation in some countries in Africa. Resources for faculty Nawal El Saadawi, The Hidden Face of Eve: Women in the Arab World, Boston, Ma.: Beacon Press, 1982. This is El Saadawi's personal account of how she had the operation forced on her as a child. Her account is vivid, and we get to hear first hand about one woman's pain. El Saadawi goes further to discuss the situation of Arab women today, and more specifically, Egyptian women. The chapters entitled "The Question No One Would Answer," and "Circumcision of Girls" are very helpful. John Duffy, "Masturbation and Clitoridectomy: A 19th Century View," Journal of the American Medical Association, volume 186, October 19, 1963: pp. 245-248. This article is a clear example of how issues of genital mutilation have threatened the situation of women in the United States. Duffy recounts how during the Industrial Revolution, it was suggested that women were deriving too much sexual pleasure from operating the pedal controlled sewing machines. Clitoridectomies were considered as a possible remedy, but as we can see by the lack of modem pedal sewing machines, other methods were used to eliminate the problem. Fran Hosken, The Hosken Report: Genital and Sexual Mutilation of Females, Lexington, Ma.: The Women's International Network News, 1982. Fran Hosken is the first to publish a definitive study on the topic of genital mutilation. For this reason, her work has a tendency to generalize about the situation in Africa. The Hosken Report provides maps and many specific case histories. Hosken is also the editor of WIN News, which deals with the issue of genital mutilation on an on-going basis. Lesson Plans Monday: Reading: Jomo Kenyatta's Facing Mount Kenya, Chapter Six, "Initiation of Boys and Girls." Nawal El Saadawi's The Hidden Face Of Eve, the chapters entitled "The Question No One Would Answer," and "Circumcision of Girls." Questions for discussion: 1. Which of these accounts do you find most believable, and why? 2. Describe each author's understanding of the entire process of genital mutilation. How are they similar? How do they conflict? 3. What sorts of moral issues do these two points of view raise? Do you see this as a problem of only African or Egyptian concern? Do other countries have a moral obligation in regard to this issue? If yes, what are these obligations, and if no, why not? Wednesday: Reading: Mary Daly's Gyn/Ecology, Chapter 5, "African Genital Mutilation: Unspeakable Atrocities." Fran Hosken's The Hosken Report, the sections entitled "Forward" and "Personal View." Questions for discussion: 1. How do these two readings relate to what we read for Monday? Do these articles clarify any moral issues? If so, what are they? 2. How do these two points of view deal with the issue of national tradition? Do you feel that their response is correct? How would Jomo Kenyatta respond? Friday: Reading: Alice Walker's Possessing the Secret of Joy, selected chapters. Margot Badran and Miriam Cooke, Opening the Gates, sections entitled "Zainaba" and "Lecture on Clitoridectomy." Questions for discussion: 1. How does the account described in Opening the Gates attempt to deal with the problem of genital mutilation? As a moral question, do you find this action sufficient? Discuss why, or why not. 2. How have the selections from Possessing the Secret of Joy affected your thoughts on this issue? How does each of the other points of view relate to this literary interpretation? Paper and Case Analysis Suggestions 1. What is the responsibility, if any, of the medical community as more and more people who perpetuate the practice of genital mutilation move to the United States? What ethical factors come into play? Should these operations be performed in the United States? In what situations? 2. What are some ways women in the United States mutilate their bodies? Do you see any parallels between these types of mutilation and genital mutilation? INCORPORATING THE ISSUE OF FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION IN A COURSE ON AFRICAN AMERICAN WOMEN WRITERS Denise Maynard Course Overview The purpose of the Major Contemporary Black Women Writers course offered at Gettysburg College is to introduce African American writers as individual authors that articulate a unique Black Self rather than the white person's perceptions of what it is to be Black. The texts that are presently required for the class are, Brown Girl, Brownstones (Paule Marshall); Betsy Brown (Ntozake Shange); Meridian (Alice Walker); The Salt Eaters (Toni Cade Bambara); Tar Baby (Toni Morrison); Linden Hills (Gloria Naylor); and Disappearing Acts (Terry McMillan). Critical texts by Melissa Walker, bell hooks, Angela Davis, Audrey Edwards and Craig T. Polite are also utilized. These books are specifically chosen for this class, explains Professor Deborah Barnes, because they depict Black women writers who exhibit "an empowered, culturally-centered African American Self." The authors are able to critique Black female subordination and disempowerment because they place the text within a "feminine sphere where the Black female 'Self' is free to define, to value, and to assert itself authentically." These books are not about Black women as depicted by white authors; they are about Black women representing themselves, their culture, and their history. They are books not only about self discovery, but also about self identity. Instead of identifying themselves through the eyes of whites, they are identifying themselves through their past and the eyes of other Black women. This course has specific focus on certain concerns and issues that are brought out in the readings. This is an outline that Dr. Barnes has provided of these concerns: * Africentered cosmology and culture * the transformation of Black [female] culture after integration * the politics of womanist critique, resistance, and transformation * the complexity and diversity of the Black female's social, political, and domestic experiences * the parameters of womanist power, domination, and agency in a patriarchal society * the Black woman's coming to voice and manipulation of language as an act of resistance * the Black woman's movement from the position of object to the position of subject * the Black woman's struggle to define, to value, and to articulate her Self while simultaneously rejecting or revising the hegemonically constructed notion of the female-Self * the cultural ramifications of multi-cultural contact, accommodation, and assimilation This course is structured as a seminar. Oral class participation and discussion of the texts is necessary. It is structured in this manner to "emphasize and reify the importance of orality, shared knowledge, and mutual respect--fundamentals of African American culture." The class is responsible for submitting three short critical essays (3-5 pages) that are written on three novels of their choice. One of the essays serves as a record of their formal oral presentation and also as a critical idea that is expanded in a term paper, which also serves as the final exam (35% of their grade). By exploring the issues found in the literature of Black women writers and using the characteristics of race, gender, and class, the goal of the course is to "track the Black woman's personal, social and political evolution in contemporary America," and to identify the Black woman's struggle to gain her identity despite years of subordination and disempowerment. Incorporating Issues of Violence Against Women While violence against Black women permeates many aspects of the Black woman writer's work, this particular bibliography focuses on incorporating the subject of genital mutilation into the Contemporary Black Women Writers course. Only recently has genital mutilation--also known as female circumcision, phaeronic circumcision, infibulation, excision and clitoridectomy--become a subject that Black women writers will discuss in their works. Direct references to it can be found in Alice Walker's Possessing the Secret of Joy and Gloria Naylor's Bailey's Cafe. Other works include references to it, but often its severity is hidden in a set of symbols. Of course, that is what genital mutilation is about--symbols. Reasons for why it is still performed in some countries of Africa are its symbolic meanings in religion, marriage, and the daily lives of women. It is important to discuss this topic because it does pertain to the goals of the course. It is part of the African culture and, if the writers wish to acknowledge their past as being separate from that of the Anglo-Saxons, a part that symbolizes the African rituals and unity. To encompass the feeling of an African sisterhood, the African American in today's society cannot ignore a practice that is part of the African woman's life. Whether or not the African American agrees with this practice, it is part of the process of the African American writer to depict an "empowered, culturally-centered African-American Self." As far as this particular course is concerned, the following bibliography will assist any students wishing to further research this topic for the oral presentation or the research paper. It also serves to assist the professor and increase their knowledge on the subject. Suggestions for class discussion are included in the suggested syllabus. Readings for Students Naylor, Gloria. Bailey's Cafe. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1992. This novel covers many topics Black women writers focus on in contemporary African American literature. It is narrated by a man, but the author is a woman and the "misfits" are also women. The chapter titled "Mary (Take Two)" is the story of Miriam's infibulation and pregnancy. Her experience is not told directly and it is the only story not told by a man because, "this isn't a story any man can tell. And the girl can't do it for herself; she's a little off in the head" (p. 143). What makes her story so different? Basically, Naylor is implying that genital mutilation is really a woman's issue and no man could possibly understand it, let alone describe it. Perhaps this is because genital mutilation is a practice continued by the women of the families; men have very little say in genital mutilation and actually know very little about it. The techniques that Naylor uses to tell this story are metaphor and symbolism. She parallels Miriam's infibulation to a plum being peeled. Walker, Alice. Possessing the Secret of Joy. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1992. The focus of this novel, which has angered many African American women for its Western view of genital mutilation, is the psychological effects of infibulation on the main character, Tashi. Not only does she suffer psychologically, but also physically and she continues to suffer when her son is born mentally retarded. Finally, Tashi is driven to murdering the woman who performed the procedure on her and she must face death for the murder. Walker's style is interesting in this novel because all the characters narrate their individual stories. It introduces what it is to be a woman and why men want to take it away. Notice the bluntness of Walker's style--she does not leave much to the imagination. Also think about her views on the issue of how Western women should react. Should it just be African American women who are concerned? Resources for Faculty African American Literature: Naylor, Gloria. Bailey's Cafe. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1992. This novel is excellent for a Black Women Writers literature class because it covers so many topics that affect African American women today. lt is narrated by a man, but the author is a woman and the "misfits" are also women. The chapter titled "Mary (Take Two)" is the story of Miriam's infibulation and pregnancy. Her experience is not told directly and it is the only story not told by a man because, "This isn't a story any man can tell. And the girl can't do it for herself; she's a little off in the head" (p. 143). The techniques that Naylor uses to tell this story are metaphor and symbolism. For example, the description of Miriam's infibulation parallels the description of a plum being peeled. Also, the title of the chapter implies religious meaning especially since Miriam is pregnant and she claims, "No man has ever touched me." This emphasizes the reason why infibulation is still performed (virginity) and also the obvious connection to the Virgin Mary. There are many opportunities for class discussion concerning this book. Walker, Alice. Possessing the Secret of Joy. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1992. The focus of this novel, which has angered many African American women for its Western view of genital mutilation, is the psychological effects of infibulation on the main character of the novel, Tashi. Not only does she suffer psychologically, but also physically and she continues to suffer when her son is born retarded. Finally, Tashi is driven to murdering the woman who performed the procedure on her. Walker's style is interesting in this novel because all the characters narrate their individual stories. It introduces what it is to be a woman and why men want to take it away. Africa Resources: Lightfoot-Klein, Hanny. Prisoners of Ritual: An Odyssey into Female Genital Circumcision in Africa. New York: Harrington Park Press, 1989. Prisoners of Ritual tells about Lightfoot-Klein's trek through Sudan, Kenya, and Egypt and her personal relations with the African women she stayed with and their explanations of the topic of genial mutilation. It has been called the most "fair-minded book" as far as its subject is concerned because it is not written in anger, but in compassion. Lightfoot-Klein includes interviews with women who have undergone genital mutilation, as well as interviews with doctors (male and female) and the husbands of women who have been through this type of procedure. She also includes a summary of how she conducted the interviews and the range of people interviewed, so one knows her methods of interviewing. John Money, PhD, Professor at Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, has said of this book, "the book does not sensationalize, wrath does not override compassion, and the gateway to change is unlocked and kept open." Because of this, Prisoners of Ritual should be the first resource read. It provides pictures, drawings, unbiased interviews, and historical background that are enlightening and straightforward. Kenyatta, Jomo. Facing Mount Kenya: The Tribal Life of the Gikuyo. New York: Vintage Books, 1965. Kenyatta is the first leader of post-independent Kenya and a celebrated anthropologist. In his chapter "Initiation of Boys and Girls," he supports genital mutilation and says it is a practice misunderstood by Westerners who criticize it. His focus is not the physical pain suffered by the women, which he says is no different from the pain suffered by circumcised men, but the traditional and cultural meanings behind genital mutilation. Hosken, Fran P. The Hosken Report: Genital and Sexual Mutilation of Females. Lexington, Mass.: Women's International Network News, 1982. The most detailed and up-to-date research on genital mutilation in Africa and the Middle East. It includes personal accounts of women and evidence why Americans should do all in their power to make genital mutilation stop. It is biased and, unfortunately, a very Western view. Hosken ignores the cultural significance of genital mutilation and her suggestions as to how to stop this practice are arrogant and imposing and show little understanding of African culture despite the time she spent in Africa. Van Sommer, Annie, ed. Our Moslem Sisters. New York: The Young People's Missionary Movement, 1907. Our Moslem Sisters is an example of how taboo a subject genital mutilation has always been. Because it was written in 1907 by American Missionaries it is a naive narrative. It does not directly discuss genital mutilation, but it does discuss in detail some of the obstacles that the Moslem women in Africa face due to the overwhelming influence of the patriarchy. This book is written from a religious stand-point, but it does show a fairly accurate picture of the Egyptian woman's life and the difficulties she encounters when she is married young, forced to marry someone she does not know, and, "her life is merely an animal life; she is but a necessary article for use in her husband's household." The references to genital mutilation are not direct, but one wonders if it is being implied in passages such as the following: "I have tried to reason with them and point out the advantages of cleanliness and industry; all admit that I am right and that our habits are better than theirs, yet none have the heart or the energy or the character to break away from their customs and their innate laziness and to rise up and be women" (p. 68). As this passage also shows, this account is tremendously biased and told from a Western view which tries to "civilize" the natives and make their country a replica of America or Europe. Morgan, Robin. Sisterhood Is Global: The International Women's Movement Anthology. New York: Anchor Books, 1984. The relevant chapters in this book are the ones on Egypt, Nigeria, Senegal, and Sudan. Basically this book provides statistics on the economy, gynography, and the government. In the section on gynography, there is an overview of marriage, divorce, traditional/cultural practices, rape, etc. These statistics are useful for factual evidence on genital mutilation and other practices which effect women in each of the countries. Also, all the chapters are followed by a brief essay on the women's movement in each of the countries and their areas of concentration. The essay in the chapter on Egypt is by Nawal El Saadawi she is the author of The Hidden Face of Eve, a book that tells the story of an Egyptian woman's life and discusses in detail genital mutilation. Muslim Country Resources: Badran, Margot and Miriam Cooke, eds. Opening the Gates: A Century of Arab Feminist Writing. Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University Press, 1990. The chapters "Zainaba" and "Alifa Rifaat" talk about genital mutilation. "Zainaba" shows the difficulties in educating midwives and sharply contrasts writers, such as Hosken, with a Western view. This essay also supports the theory of Nahid Toubia found in Women and the Family in the Middle East because it shows that an attack to the midwives will not be the only way to eliminate genital mutilation. "Alifa Rifaat" is a chapter from Rifaat's book, Who Will Be the Man. It is an interesting contrast or comparison to African American accounts such as Walker's. Fernea, Elizabeth Warnock, ed. Women and the Family in the Middle East: New Voices of Change. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press, 1985. In the essay entitled "The Social and Political Implications of Female Circumcision: The Case of the Sudan," by Nahid F. Toubia, the author provides a quick analysis of common assumptions about genital mutilation and the reasons it should not be performed. For example, Toubia says that to eliminate the practice only for health reasons should not be the central focus of people desiring to terminate genital mutilation. She argues that genital mutilation must be seen as a practice in which women are subordinated, and it is only a part of the web of practices by which women are controlled. To end genital mutilation would mean to end other practices which create inequalities between men and women. Feminist Perspective: Daly, Mary. Gyn/Ecology: The Metaethics of Radical Feminism. Boston: Beacon Press, 1990. The chapter on "African Genital Mutilation: The Unspeakable Atrocities" represents a radical feminist view of genital mutilation. Obviously, Daly is strongly against the practice and sees genital mutilation as another means in which women are subordinate to men. She explains some historical reasons for the continuation of the practice and provides modem reasons why it should be stopped from a feminist perspective, therefore not only concentrating on the medical reasons. Symbolic Sexuality: Stratton, Jon. The Virgin Text: Fiction, Sexuality, and Ideology. University of Oklahoma Press, 1987. In most of the texts describing genital mutilation, an emphasis is on virginity. One of the reasons the practice is performed is to maintain a woman's virginity. In his chapter on "Sexuality and Confinement," Stratton discusses virginity as a way to control sexuality. This pertains to genital mutilation as a way that women's sexuality is controlled in areas in Africa and the Middle East. There is also an analysis of the clitoris and theories of Freud and other behavior analysts who analyze the psychological significance of the female's genitalia. Stratton also describes confinement as a means of controlling a person's sexuality. Overall, he describes sexuality and the controlling of a person's sexuality as part of a bourgeois capitalist society and uses perhaps one of the best descriptions of genital mutilation's purpose, "The problem arises of demonstrating not that something has happened but that it has not" (p. 18). Atkins, John. Sex in Literature: The Erotic Impulse in Literature. London: Calder and Boyars, 1970. This text is useful in providing traditional descriptions of females found in literature and helps support the stereotypes of the "ideal" woman being smooth, white, soft, etc. These ideals are what women are trying to attain when they go through genital mutilation. It shows what a beautiful woman is, and supports the practice of genital mutilation as a means of achieving the "ideal" beauty. Interestingly, the same ideals are found throughout the world, so one might say that women who are genitally mutilated have just taken the descriptions to extremes. One description supporting the threat of a woman's genitalia growing to extremes and becoming like a man's penis is found in Juliette: "There is a woman named Volmar who is fitted with a clitoris three inches long, and, 'destined to insult Nature' whichever be the sex she adopts, the whore's got either to play the nymphomaniac or the sodomite: with her, there's no median alternative" (p. 198). This text explores the myths associated with women's sexuality from a literary stand-point and it is interesting to see that these myths do not only stem from Africa and the Middle East--they have pervaded Western literature and literature from the Orient for centuries. Bettelheim, Bruno. Symbolic Wounds: How Pre-Literate Man Masters Fear by Trying to Make Woman's Power His Own. New York: Collier Books, 1962. This book contains anthropological data on initiation rites and the symbolism behind the actions. Despite its title, it is told without bias and is a useful source to see what the symbols and symbolic acts represent. In the chapter "Girl's Rites," genital mutilation and theories behind it are explained in detail. Michie, Helena. Sororophobia: Differences Among Women in Literature and Culture. New York: Oxford University Press, 1992. In the chapter "'And Now She Was Different': Sexuality and Differentiation Among Black Women In Quicksand, Passing, and Sula," motherlove, Black women's sexuality and symbolic marks and how they are depicted in these books are discussed in detail. It is interesting to compare these ideas and how they are portrayed in these books to Bailey's Cafe and Possessing the Secret of Joy. Also one can compare them to books read in class by Toni Morrison. The themes of silence, loyalty, and love being shown through violence are also applicable to the other texts that discuss genital mutilation. Another issue to further study is the symbol and uses of the bedroom, since the bedroom is a crucial setting in all these texts as a place for privacy, but also as a place in which sexual acts occur. Boddy, Janice. Wombs and Alien Spirits: Women, Men, and the Zar Cult in Northern Sudan. Madison, Wis.: University of Wisconsin Press, 1989. The chapter entitled "Enclosures" is the most pertinent to the topic of genital mutilation. Boddy uses her account of the procedure to look into symbolic messages that are portrayed in the practice of genital mutilation. For example, she examines the importance of heat, pain, and of blood and how this practice affirms the symbolic meanings of these things. She explains her purpose in this chapter: "Embedded in its surface expressions--customs, beliefs, ceremonial procedures--lies a network of interlocking symbols, idioms, and metaphors that provides the context in whose terms Hofriyati interact and derive meaning from their experiences in the world" (p. 47). Instead of supporting or condemning genital mutilation, Boddy researches why it is important to these people. Henderson, Mae G. "Toni Morrison's Beloved: Re-Membering the Body as Historical Text" in Spillers, Hortense J., ed. Comparative American Identities: Race, Sex, and Nationality in the Modern Text. New York: Routledge, 1991. This essay primarily discusses the following: boundaries that separate the speakable from the unspeakable. the Black woman's sense of self and the recovery of herstory, and motherhood and how events from the past become the Black woman's repression and obsession. There are also references to "mutilations" in the sense of scars that are self-inflicted or inflicted by males. While it is mainly a discussion of Beloved, the ideas in this essay can easily be applied to Bailey's Cafe and Possessing the Secret of Joy. It is a useful reference to compare and contrast these novels. Staples, Robert. The Black Woman in America. Chicago: Nelson-Hall Publishers, 1973. Chapter two of this book, called "The Sexual Life of Black Women" describes some of the sexual obstacles faced by Black Women in America in 1973. While it is outdated, it is interesting how the author attempts to describe certain aspects of the Black woman's sexuality to events in her past--slavery and the Black woman's role in African society. It is not an accurate source, but it perhaps gives some explanations why authors like Gloria Naylor and Alice Walker are writing about genital mutilation today. Suggested Syllabus Dr. Barnes has placed the literature used in the course into four sections: Integration, The Struggle for Social Change, The Price of Assimilation and The Fruits of the Struggle. I suggest that Possessing the Secret of Joy be placed under the heading "The Struggle for Social Change" and Bailey's Cafe be read under the heading "The Price of Assimilation." A general outline for class discussion could explore the following questions: * What would the "womanist" critique of this practice be? In the book, is the author resisting this practice? Supporting it? Indifferent? * How does/doesn't this depict the Black woman's social, political, and domestic experiences? * How does this depict the "parameters of womanist power, domination, and agency" in a patriarchal society? Genital Mutilation - African American Women Writers 19. * How is this part of the Black woman's struggle to define, to value, and to articulate her Self while simultaneously rejecting or revising the hegemonically constructed notion of the female-Self? The following questions can serve as a guideline when discussing Bailey's Cafe: * Does the metaphor of the plum being peeled continue to support the "tabooness" of the subject of genital mutilation or is it done for artistic effect? Why isn't Naylor blunt like Walker? * The title of the chapter, "Mary (Take Two)," implies religious meanings and the connections are obvious. Why does Naylor parallel the story of an Ethiopian infibulated girl to the story of the Virgin Mary and the birth of Christ? * What is "the price of assimilation" for Miriam? Or does she pay a "price" for not being assimilated? * Does Naylor emphasize the psychological or physical impact of genital mutilation? How does she do it? * Does Naylor create an African American identity in the character of Miriam? Some guidelines for discussing Possessing The Secret of Joy are: * Why would this book enrage its African American readers? * Is Tashi a hero or a victim or both? * Does Walker believe that African American women are responsible for the well-being of African women? What is the role of African American women in this novel? * Is this a novel about social change or is it trying to create social change? Another topic to explore is to compare and contrast genital mutilation to the other forms of violence described in the other texts. All these questions can be discussed in class or in a paper. It is a topic most people know very little about and I guarantee it will create some controversy in the class, therefore it is important that the Professor research the different views supporting or opposing genital mutilation so as to give all arguments some direction. INCORPORATING THE ISSUE OF WIFE BEATING INTO A SOCIOLOGY OF DEVIANCE COURSE Tonia Trodahl Course Overview This course addresses various issues that are seen as deviant or as social problems. There are several underlying purposes involved: to provide information, to explore the subject from a sociological perspective, and to understand or explain violence in the context of the culture in which it exists. This course attempts to look at the logic of why violence occurs. This involves an examination of the types of violence and an attempt to gain a perspective as to the logic of violence and why it occurs. Topics in this course include sociological perspectives for viewing deviance, heterosexual deviance, homelessness, the scientific study of deviant behaviors, pornography, homosexuality, alcohol and drugs, the social distance scale, and anthropological perspectives on deviance. Several issues and dilemmas are identified for consideration in the issue of violence. These include: dilemmas of definition; dilemmas of data; dilemmas of social control; dilemmas related to civil rights; dilemmas related to role definitions; institutional dilemmas; issues related to social power; and dilemmas of causation. Class lectures, films, demonstrations and outside reading assignments provide the material for this course. In addition to these, the students are required to write a short biographical paper and a term paper and to complete a "Hands-On Experience" assignment. The "Hands-On Experience" is a semester long assignment that is designed to allow the student opportunities to come into contact with the various forms of deviance dealt with in the course. This assignment involves activities outside of class such as attending lectures, viewing films, attending group or-support meetings (open meetings only), interviewing members of society who are labelled as deviant, reading additional books, and visiting such establishments that cater to specific kinds of people (such as gay bars or bookstores, or adult bookstores). The student keeps track of his or her activities and writes about what was learned from them. This project is intended to expose students to different ideas. Incorporating the Issue of Wife Beating Item number one of the course objectives listed on the syllabus for this class reads: "To provide an introduction to and a sociological perspective on the concept and phenomenon of deviance." In order to do this in terms of violence against women, this course first deals with the subject of violence as deviant in general. Violence is part of society -- this concept cannot be denied. Some violence is socially acceptable, such as in sports, childrearing, capital punishment, and the fact that police carry guns. Social violence is socially defined discomfort or pain; deviant social violence is social violence coupled with social control. This concept can then be used to introduce the subject of wife beating as a type of deviant behavior. Violence against women, which occurs in many forms, is a method of maintaining the status quo in which women are in socially subordinate positions. Violence is one way of ensuring that women do not move forward in their fight for equality. Violence used in this way is very effective -- the fear of physical harm, or even death, can have a powerful, altering effect on women's behavior. A common concept (although not necessarily factually valid) is that men have traditionally occupied the positions of power in society -- one of these being in the family. A commonly heard statement is that the man is the head of the household. An idea such as this lends legitimation to the idea that the husband has the right to beat his wife "to keep her in line." The concept of wife beating as an example of the way that violence is used as a method of social control needs to be stressed in the treatment of this topic within the course. Under the topic of "The Scientific Study of Deviant Behavior" the syllabus designates two class periods for the discussion of violence (a sample lesson plan follows this section). This includes violence in general, as well as the specific categories of child abuse and spouse abuse. Violence in general seems to receive the largest treatment, with child abuse receiving more than spouse abuse. This may be due to the fact that some people may find it easier to discuss the situation of children rather than wives because the marriage relationship is seen as a very private thing between a man and a woman. One way to bring the idea of wife beating out into focus is to begin by reading Chapter One in Del Martin's book, Battered Wives. By reading this the students would be able to gain a more "approachable" perspective on the subject. As they read more theoretical pieces on the subject they will have a more real concept of wife beating which they can then use as a context in which to examine the theories of wife beating. In order to tackle the idea of violence against women as a method of social control, there needs to be a framework within which to discuss this. Regarding wife beating, the framework that is necessary is an understanding of the institution of marriage, the different functions that it serves for men and women, and how this facilitates violence (and the legitimation of that violence). The chapter from Violence Against Wives (Dobash and Dobash) could be used to provide this framework. The article by Murray Straus could serve this purpose as well. Since another of the objectives of the course is "To analyze specific deviations in the context of the sociological perspective," the McCall and Shields piece ("Social and Structural Factors in Family Violence") would be useful as well. The article, while not an in-depth study of all the different theories, does provide a discussion of different theories of a sociological context that are available. The Breines and Gordon review essay ("The New Scholarship on Violence") from the faculty's list of resources would be a good complement in this approach. This essay discusses the relative merits and problems associated with different theories. In addition to the two days set aside on the syllabus for the discussion of violence, there are other possibilities in the course where the subject could be included as well. One place where this could be accomplished is the discussion of drugs and alcohol. A common conception in society is that men are more likely to beat their wives in a drunken rage -- in other words, it is the alcohol that is a strongly contributing factor to wife abuse. Since this section falls later in the course than the section focusing on violence, the students will already have a background in the subject and should be able to apply it to this context. The professor could introduce wife beating into this section of the course by posing a question for the class to discuss about the relationship between alcohol and violence in general, and then tie in the issue of wife beating. (Refer to the lesson plans following this section for sample discussion questions.) The Kanter and Straus article ("The 'Drunken Bum' Theory of Wife Beating") from the faculty resource list provides some data on these questions as well as their theory about the alcohol-violence link, and its connection to wife beating. One of the assignments in the course is a term paper on some aspect of a specific social deviation. The student is to ask a question about a specific issue and then investigate it. This paper has the potential to provide students with an opportunity to address the issue of wife beating more closely, from an angle of his or her own choosing. Perhaps the topic could be examined in terms of whether a specific theory provides an adequate explanation of the issue. Or the student could examine whether there exist any underlying social factors which may contribute to wife beating, either on the part of the husband or wife or both. A good opportunity of providing a way to integrate this material into the course, other than with readings and class discussion, is to make use of the "Hands-On Experience" assignment. This assignment is designed so that the student will come into contact with the various forms of deviation that are dealt with in the course. It might be too difficult for the student to get really close to the subject of wife beating in this manner because of the sensitivity of the subject -- for example, since the location of shelters is usually kept secret to protect the residents, it probably would not be feasible for a student to visit or attend a support group. However, there still may exist opportunities for students to gain a closer Perspective on the subject. Perhaps a woman who was battered herself and is comfortable talking about her experiences would either serve as a guest speaker or participate in a small group discussion of the issue. Or perhaps they could interview the director of a shelter or some other person who has had experience in this area. Another possibility is that of attending some type of hearing (if there are any open ones). Learning more about protection from abuse orders, as well as other options that are available to women may help students gain a better understanding of what women in this situation face. Students may also have come into contact with the issue in their own lives and be willing to share that. There may be other possibilities as well; the point is that the subject of wife beating does not need to be limited to classroom instruction. Wife beating is an important element in the idea of violence as deviant behavior, especially in terms of viewing violence as a method of social control. To some people, the idea of one half of the population of a society using violence as a means of social control of the other half is deviant in itself. It is this idea that must be part of any treatment of wife beating as well as violence against women in general. Suggested Readings for Students Martin, Del. Battered Wives. California: Volcano Press, Inc. 1981. Chapter One: A Letter From a Battered Wife. This chapter opens with a letter from a battered wife. In this letter she describes what her life was like as a battered wife. She tells of the problems and obstacles that she faced when she attempted to get help -- these obstacles involved different aspects of life including legal, economic and social barriers. The chapter concludes with a brief overview of the beginnings of the battered women's movement. This chapter would provide a good basic introduction to the issue of wife beating. By including the letter from the battered wife, the issue is made more real and approachable than if just statistics on the occurrence of wife battering were presented. Dobash, R. Emerson and Dobash, Russell. Violence Against Wives: A Case Against the Patriarchy. New York: The Free Press, 1979. Chapter Five: Becoming A Wife This chapter examines the nature of marriage in order to understand violence against women in this situation. The position of husbands and wives and their relationship to one another are considered in this examination. Also examined are the ideals and beliefs about marriage that arc commonly held; the point is made that the importance of marriage and the ideals, expectations and demands that are connected to marriage are different for men and women. McCall, George J. and Shields, Nancy M. "Social and Structural Factors in Family Violence," in Lystad, Mary (ed.) Violence in the Horne: Interdisciplinary Perspectives. New York: Brunner/Mazel Publishers, 1986 Violence is a social fact. This article addresses the slightly more general topic of family violence. Family violence is referred to as both a sociological problem and a social problem. Since the treatment of family violence is influenced by one's orientation toward the topic, there exist different theories concerning family violence. This article is a review of some of those theories. The theories discussed include Feminist Theory, Culture of Violence Theory, Subculture Theory, Systems Theory, Interactionist Theory, and Sex Role Theory to name several (there are others discussed as well). Resources for Faculty Martin, Del. Battered Wives. California: Volcano Press, Inc., 1981. Chapter Three: Wife-Beating and the Marriage Contract This chapter examines the background of marriage as it is rooted in patriarchy. The analysis in this chapter is more historically based than in the chapter in Dobash and Dobash. Topics include: the foundation of the patriarchy; the trend toward legal reform; the nature of the marriage contract; and the economics of marriage. The development of the roles of husband and wife is discussed as occurring within the patriarchal family rather than out of "biological realities." Gil, David G. "Sociocultural Aspects of Domestic Violence," in Lystad, Mary (ed). Violence in the Home: Interdisciplinary Perspectives. New York: Brunner/Mazel Publishers, 1986. This article treats domestic violence as an element of the process of social relations rather than as an isolated occurrence between individuals. Domestic violence is seen as a "multidimensional phenomenon reflective of individual deviance." The concept of violence, in terms of basic hypotheses and definitions, is examined, as is the idea of families as agents and arenas of violence. Gil then discusses social-structural violence in the United States, as well as theories about overcoming violence. Breines, Wini and Gordon, Linda. "The New Scholarship on Family Violence," Signs 8(3): 1983, pp. 490 531. Although this article is about family violence in general, it does focus more in depth on the specific varieties of family violence. The section that focuses on wife beating provides a review of the available literature (at the time it was written) on this topic. The authors address the advantages and disadvantages of the major theories concerning wife-beating. Straus, Murray A. "The Marriage License as a Hitting License: Evidence from Popular Culture, Law and Social Science." in Straus, Murray A. and Hotaling, G. T. (eds.). The Social Causes of Husband-Wife Violence. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1980. This chapter's self stated objective is to probe beyond the 'official' version of reality which sees the family as a "group devoted to gentleness and love." This chapter examines the idea that these norms are juxtaposed to another set of norms that legitimate the use of violence in the family. Straus deals with the idea that something in the family system not only produces a high level of physical aggression, but also makes wives the victims of that aggression. The issue of legitimation of marital violence by the courts and police is also discussed in terms of the following: immunity from suit; failure of the police to act; failure of prosecutors to act; victim compensation; and the legal system and cultural approval of intrafamily violence. Brush, Lisa D. "Violent Acts and Injurious Outcomes in Married Couples: Methodological Issues in the National Survey of Families and Households," Gender & Society 4(1): 1990, pp. 56-67. In her article. Brush provides a feminist critique of quantitative violence research. She identifies problems with "non-feminist" analyses of wife beating. especially Straus's Conflict Tactics Scale, because using this "family systems" approach overlook "important gendered variation in norms, legitimation... and power." (p. 57) Brush presents her own analysis as an alternative to this method of analysis. This article would be useful to the professor because it provides a necessary critique of work that. while performed by sociologists, may not be feminist in orientation and therefore may be presenting the issue from a male biased view. Kantor, Glenda Kaufman and Straus, Murray A. "The 'Drunken Bum' Theory of Wife Beating," Social Problems 34(3): 1987, pp. 213-230. This article examines the idea that wife beating is a result of drunkenness and socioeconomic status. The results show that drinking was associated with higher rates of wife beating but it was not seen as a necessary variable. Rather it was the combination of lower socioeconomic status, drinking and approval of violence that was most significantly associated with wife abuse. Cultural approval of violence was an especially strong indicator of wife abuse. This article can be used to bring up the issue of wife abuse in another section of the course which may not deal directly with violence. However, the links to alcohol use make the issue relevant to the discussion on wife abuse. Lesson Plans The following sections are taken from the course syllabus as places where this material can be integrated. The Scientific Study of Deviant Behaviors Violence: General, Child Abuse, Spouse Abuse (2 class periods) Day 1: Class: The topic of violence as deviant in general, and introduce wife beating as an aspect of this. Readings: In addition to the regular assignment, Martin Chapter One. Day 2: Class: Theories of wife beating Readings: Dobash and Dobash, and McCall and Shields Sample Discussion Questions: 1-Do you feel that wife beating is deviant or that it should just be left within the privacy of the family? 2-Do you think male violence against women, and wife beating in particular, is a method of social control employed by men in order to keep women in subordinate positions? In addition to the above section, wife beating may also be incorporated in the following section: Causation Theory Alcohol and Drugs (2 class periods) -- wife beating can be brought up here as part of a discussion of alcohol use, first by discussing the link between violence and alcohol in general (#1 below), and then tieing in the issue of wife beating (#2 below). (The Kanter article can provide the professor with background on this issue.) Sample Discussion Questions: 1-Do you think that by lowering inhibitions, alcohol use makes people more likely to be violent? 2-What about wife beating? Are men who drink more, more likely to beat their wives? (What about men who are sober when they beat their wives?) INCORPORATING MATERIAL ON WIFE ABUSE IN A CONTEMPORARY WOMEN WRITERS COURSE Lisa Kaugher Course Overview This is a literature class devoted to the study of the different roles of women depending on their culture. It is a study of women writers and their language. Questions are raised to discover why women write, their styles, and the differences between women's writing and men's. The topics of the fiction by and about women include much diversity. The diversity includes women from cultures all over the world. As stated in the syllabus: "...the course examines fiction by and about women from varied socio-cultural backgrounds in an effort to discover both the diversity and the commonality of female experience." (Syllabus: Women's Studies 219 Contemporary Women Writers: Cross Cultural Perspectives, Gettysburg College, Professor Powers) The course goal is for students to develop an awareness of the diversity of women's lifestyles. This awareness comes from fiction by female authors and their individual styles. Incorporating the Issue of Wife Abuse A common experience among many women from all parts of the world is the horror of wife battering. It varies in forms but is a problem in all parts of the world. The Contemporary Women Writers course examines gender inequalities in the United States and also in India. Violence against women is a problem in India, which has grown dramatically as a consequence of rapid capitalist development coupled with traditional patriarchal values. Traditions differ from society to society; however, violence against women occurs globally. My goal is to compare and contrast violence against wives in India and in the United States. Although the course also studies Native American Women, African American Women and Immigrant Women, the comparison solely between the United States and India will be more thorough and condensed than if the comparison touched on all the different types of women discussed in the course. The text Fire on the Mountain by Anita Desai discusses wife abuse in India. Although the cultures are totally different the violence is happening and it is a serious problem for women. Through the reading of this text we gain background knowledge of the situation in India. Many factors contribute to the violence in both countries: social class, alcohol etc. An awareness of this violence and what can be done to help end it is crucial for the future. The syllabus is designed in such a way that a comparison study of wife battering can be incorporated very easily. Because the course is a literature class and the readings I have suggested are not literature but factual articles, it is imperative for the students to read the suggested feminist articles which are assigned in conjunction with the text. Contemporary Women Writers: Cross-Cultural Perspectives is a course dealing with literature from a number of countries. India, one of these countries, is represented by the reading of the book Fire on the Mountain by Anita Desai. This novel touches upon some of the issues of wife battering. The existing syllabus calls for two days of discussion of this book. To be able to teach a comparison study of "wife battering" in the United States to "wife battering" in India, more time must be allotted. After the reading of this book is the appropriate time to incorporate this discussion. The following is an annotated bibliography of sources which would prove to be useful for a professor to gain knowledge of the situations in the United States and India. Suggested Readings for Students Ferraro, Kathleen J. and John M. Johnson, "How Women Experience Battering: The Process of Victimization." Feminist Frontiers 11: Rethinking Sex, Gender and Society. Laurel Richardson and Verta Taylor (New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc. 1989), pp. 41~427. This article examines the victimization process of relationships, and raises the question of why battered women stay in abusive relationships. A battered woman experiences so much shock and confusion, the situations are at times so poor for women. The article also discusses other forms of victimization against women. Public support is necessary in the campaigns to end the battering of women. This article is a definite option for the students to read. The Feminist Frontiers text is at a level acceptable for a one hundred or two hundred level course. The article includes data tables, personal experiences, and touches on the problem of wife battering in the United States from a number of different aspects. The article would also be helpful for faculty because it is a brief overview of the situation and is full of pertinent background information. Kishwar, Madhu, "Rethinking Dowry Boycott," MANUSHI: A Journal about Women and Society. Sept-Oct. 1988: 48. This article comes from a feminist publication out of India. It includes a discussion about dowry. It argues that dowry is a social evil and that dowry weddings in India should not be attended. This is one of the forms of wife abuse in India which differs from the United States. The position of women in India is very poor, dowry leads to later problems in marriage. In India the wife is looked upon as man's property. Parents, however, believe dowry is important. This is the argument created and gives a genuine description of the situation and debate of this problem in India. Kishwar, Madhu and Ruth Vanita, "The Burning of Roop Kanwar," MANUSHI: A Journal about Women and Society. Sept-Dec. 1987: 42-43. This article, again from the feminist publication from India, discusses the problem of wife burning in India. It gives an actual story of a woman and the reactions of her family. Parents of wives who are burned mourn; however they accept the situation. The death is blamed on suicide or an accident. Although it is an act of violence in society, it is a situation in which the violence cannot be proved and therefore continues to occur. I feel both of these articles from the MANUSHI Magazine should be read by the students. They are not lengthy and are perfect in expressing the situation in India. Books written in the United States may be able to describe wife burning and dowry murders, however, this is a great example of Indian women's experiences. The debates over issues like these can be expressed and understood after reading these articles. Faculty could benefit from these articles simply because they are different. They are real life accounts of wife abuse. Students would enjoy reading this different type of literature, it is a literature that is more real to life than something from a sociological text. Mies, Maria, "Violence Against Women and the Ongoing Primitive Accumulation of Capital," Patriarchy and Accumulation on a World Scale: Women in the International Division of Labor. (London: Zed Books Ltd., 1986), pp. 145-174. This chapter discusses the relationship between labor and violence against women in India. A quote which is important in describing the situation comes from the introductory paragraph on page 145. "The common feature of all the production and labor relations described above is the use of structural or direct violence and coercion by which women are exploited and superexploited." The situation, economically, and socially, is presented in relation to dowry-murders, amniocentesis and "femicide," and rape. This relates to the situation in the United States when the issue of the lack of education for women arises. I feel this is an excellent choice not only for background for professors but for students as well. Economics play a large role in the cause of violence against women, and the solution to end this is not always easy to figure out. Resources for Faculty Breines, Wini, and Linda Gordon, "The New Scholarship on Family Violence," Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, Vol. 8 no. 3, 1983, pp. 490-531. This article discusses concerns surrounding wife abuse which have been emerging. The problem of wife abuse is viewed from a feminist point of view, a nonfeminist point of view and psychologically in the article. There is discussion of how family violence is becoming less tolerable in society and the emergence of the increase of privacy in families. Some major themes are the discussion of sexism, stress and issues of gender pertaining to wife abuse. This article is a bit in depth for students, however for faculty it is very beneficial. Reading about the different perspectives of wife abuse may spark ideas for class discussion. Walker, Lenore, The Battered Woman Syndrome Study. (New York: Springer Publishing Co., 1984). Lenore Walker is a well-known author of material related to battered women in the United States. She discusses key psychological and sociological factors which include: learned helplessness theory and behavioral cycle theory of violence. The article touches on sex role socialization, and the difference which economic class, religion, and race, and the influence of alcohol have on the type of person who batters. Although this article has a bit of sociological and psychological analysis, it is not too challenging and would benefit a student and a professor. Walker's perspective is interesting and the short article contains a number of graphs and charts. It is interesting to see what type of person is prone to batter and why. Lerman, Lisa G., "Prosecution of Wife Beaters: Institutional Obstacles and Innovations," Violence in the Home: Interdisciplinary Perspectives. ed. Mary Lystad, Ph.D. (New York: Brunner/Mazel Publishers, 1986), pp. 25~293. This article would be beneficial for a professor to gain background on ways to better the situation for battered women. In regard to fitting the topic into the course syllabus, legal issues may be an area not stressed due to time constraints. Unfortunately this is a crucial area to learn about in order to make change. This article touches on possible goals to set up more shelters, and improve police response to domestic violence. The argument is that legislation must be developed in order to better the situation for battered women. Goals are discussed to find concerned prosecutors to share their experiences with other prosecutors. Mazumdar, Vina and Kumud Sharma, "Sexual Division of Labor and the Subordination of Women: A Reappraisal from India," Persistent Inequalities: Women and World Development. ed. Irene Tinker, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), pp. 185-197. This chapter would provide information for the professor on the relationship of the subordination of women to the development process. Sexual inequality and the division of labor have always gone hand-in-hand with the subordination of women in India. The chapter discusses the overworked woman who is uneducated and receives nothing in return for her labor. Roy, Maria, "Some Thoughts Regarding the Criminal Justice System and Wifebeating," Battered Women: A Psychosociological Study of Domestic Violence. ed. Maria Roy (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1977), pp. 138-139. This article takes a look at the family and the intervention of the law. The existing criminal justice system is dominated by males; this is an area where change is needed. Judicial systems usually try to keep the family together as one unit; this article discusses how this is not always the best solution. Our existing legal remedies are inadequate at this time and need reconstruction. Jain, Devaki, "India: A Condition Across Caste and Class," Sisterhood is Global: The International Women's Movement Anthology. ed. Robin Morgan (New York: Doubleday, 1984), pp. 305-309. This provides an overview of women's position in India and shows the clear demonstration of the lack of power women hold. A description of the position women are in politically, socially, biologically, etc. is given in this overview. Liddle, Joanna, and Rama Joshi, Daughters of Independence: Gender, Caste, and Class in India. (London: Zed Books Ltd. 1986). This book discusses the role of patriarchy and its relation to the subordination of women in India. It does, however, include the success of a number of Indian women. Also, there is a discussion of the link between social systems of class and women's roles. Lesson Plans I feel the best way to present the two culturally different problems of wife battering is to compare and contrast. Because, although the context of wife beating may take totally different forms, it is a problem, a form of violence against women. Due to the nature of the existing syllabus, I have developed a two-day plan to incorporate around the reading of the book Fire on the Mountain. This could be expanded or condensed depending on the number of reading assignments used. Day One: Reading already prepared- "How Women Experience Battering: The Process of Victimization" (Kathleen J. Ferraro and John M. Johnson) "Rethinking Dowry Boycott" (Madhu Kishwar) "The Burning of Roop Kanwar" (Madhu Kishwar) These choices touch on the basic situations in the two countries and provide a background on the problems. Day Two: Reading already Prepared- "Violence Against Women and the Ongoing Primitive Accumulation of Capital" (Maria Mies) "The Battered Woman Syndrome Study" (Lenore WaLker) These choices once again touch on the situations in both countries. The Walker article deals with sociological and psychological factors. The Mies article relates the issue of violence against women to rapid capitalist development. *This is not a lot of reading; more may easily be assigned to include a more in depth discussion of additional topics such as legislation, politics, etc. Possible topics for discussion: -History of wife battering in the country. Importance of traditions, lack of change. -Role of patriarchy in society. This is something both countries have in common. -Economic role in wife battering. Crucial in both countries but very different types of labor involved. -Possible ways to put a stop to wife battering -- also in relation to education, the law, shelters, etc. -General comparison and contrast between the two situations of wife battering. Because the class is a literature class, the feminist and sociological analysis would most likely not be deep. The issues discussed would provide background to the novels being read. A possible paper topic would be to analyze a novel about Indian Women with respect to their social situation, and to compare this to the situation of women in the United States. It also might be possible to have a representative from the battered women's shelter in Gettysburg come to class and speak. A real discussion of the abuse which is occurring may help students to realize this common female problem, and possibly spark ideas of how to take action. It could prove to be eye opening for many students who do not realize the extent of the problem here in the United States. INCORPORATING THE ISSUE OF RAPE IN A CORE LIBERAL ARTS COURSE Valerie Hoffman Course Overview First Year Colloquy is a required interdisciplinary core liberal arts course for first year students. It is taught by full-time faculty members from a cross-section of academic departments, and features two basic teaching formats: comprehensive sessions making use of lectures and films, and small seminar groups (no more than 16 students) in which each student actively participates. Each Colloquy section meets for a total of 2 and 1/2 hours of class a week, either on Monday, Wednesday and Friday or on Tuesday and Thursday. Class discussion stems from the readings - both fiction and non-fiction - and from films, lectures, and on and off-campus events. The First Year Colloquy classroom is not a lecture hall, but a workshop. Through lively class discussions and written analysis of classroom material, Colloquy students consider new ideas, develop their own opinions and learn to appreciate other individuals' perspectives. The First Year Colloquy is designed to meet three important objectives: to strengthen reasoning skills, broaden acquaintance with landmarks of human achievement, and promote the benefits of a common intellectual experience in the campus community. Other skills that are developed include clear and analytical thinking, oral discussion and debate, presenting ideas effectively in writing, looking at problems from an interdisciplinary perspective, and reading of significant (and often difficult) texts. (Portions of this section are paraphrased from the Gettysburg College Viewbook and the First Year Colloquy Syllabus.) Incorporating the Issue of Rape The First Year Colloquy theme, "Trading Eyes: Exploring Alternative Visions," asks students to look through the eyes of others so that they may appreciate and understand different ways of knowing and experiencing life. "Trading Eyes" has great power to affect how students understand the natural world, different cultures, other individuals, and themselves. The topic of "Trading Eyes" is divided into four sections: Intriguing Visions, Many Visions of America, Art as an Alternative Vision, and A Vision of Africa. The content of the final two weeks of class in a semester of Colloquy is left up to the instructor's discretion: this is where I am suggesting the study of violence against women be placed. Incorporating a discussion of violence against women, and more specifically rape, into the Colloquy curriculum can encourage students to think about and discuss their own and others' attitudes towards issues of rape that affect them during college including fraternity gang rape, date/acquaintance rape, stranger rape, and their own sexual freedom. The following section contains three annotated bibliography lists. The first is a "Student Resources" list which includes materials that can be used by the student for research or reading outside the class, i.e. presentation or paper sources. Following that is a list of "Student Readings" which includes suggested readings for the First Year Colloquy class, and some of these have been used to develop a model syllabus which can be found in the last part of this section on rape. The final list consists of "Resources for Faculty" which is organized by sub-categories of types of rape and can be used to locate background information. Attached is one model lesson plan. It begins with six chapters from the Gordon and Riger book on female fear of rape. This book will not only help both male and female students to become aware of women's fear of rape, but will also promote discussion of rape and male aggression against women existing on a continuum in our society. This book is easily accessible to women because it does not single out those who have experienced rape and those who haven't; all women live with this fear. It is easily accessible to men because it doesn't have a threatening or male bashing undertone. On the second and third class days The Second Rape by Madigan and Gamble will be read and discussed. The second day will concentrate on Parts one and two which give a description of what happens to a woman after she has been a victim of rape and how the authors feel the system causes such women to have to go through another "rape." Following that is a rape history from 3,000 B.C. to today and then the authors present five women's stories about their experiences within the system after they had been raped. The third day concentrates on the third and fourth parts of the book which include the author's research on the system that "rapes" these women for a second time. The book ends with a discussion of change and empowerment. Reading the victims' testimonies first will give the student the chance to put themselves in a position of a victim having to decide whether or not to report the crime, and how horrible it is after that is done. Then the students are exposed to the people involved in the "system" and they are given a chance to be on that side of the coin. I suggest showing the movie "Can't You See Me" after the first fifteen minutes of discussion on the third day. This movie depicts an acquaintance rape of a college student by her professor which she reports. Her situation is resolved very nicely in the movie with a guilty conviction, and this may provoke the students to disagree or agree with what happened to this woman as she went through the "system" based on what they have read in the book The Second Rape. Student Resources: Brownmiller, Susan. Against Our Will: Men, Women, and Rape. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1975. This books serves as an excellent background on feminist perspectives on rap, the history of rape (with specific focus on the United States), and male power over women (in the legal system, as a form of social control). Also included is discussion of rap in war, rape and sexual abuse of children, rap victims' psychological trauma, and actual testimony from rape victims. All in all, the book is a good resource and starting place for both students and professors unfamiliar with the subject. Finkelhor, David and Kersti Yllo. License to Rape. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1985. Finkelhor and Yllo provide an in depth discussion of the issues surrounding the problem of marital rape. Chapters one and two used together provide a shocking but truthful description/introduction to the topic. Chapters three, four and five delve further into the subject and describe the types of rap, who raps his wife, and the difference between marital rape and marital sexuality. The last four chapters are useful to the discussion of solving the problem of marital rape through changes in law and attitudes. Russell, Diana. Rape in Marriage. New York: Collier Books, 1982. Russell provides a complete look at the issue of marital rape. She covers subjects from the law, theory and statistics to studies of the men and women involved in marital rap. She discusses women as property and the extreme violence against women, and ends with some of the strategies women use to get out or cope with abusive marriages. Russell also looks at marital rape cross-culturally in the last chapter. Her writing is accessible to students and I strongly recommend that this book, accompanied by Finkelhor and Yllo, be used for a paper or presentation on marital rap. Sanday, Peggy Reeves. "The Socio-Cultural Context of Rape: A Cross-Cultural Study," Journal of Social Issues 37, 4: 1981, pp. 5-27. This study debunks the notion of many earlier researchers that rape exists on a continuum around the world and always has. Sanday, an anthropologist, looks at 156 tribal societies and provides a description of "rape prone" and "rape free" societies. In addition, she gives the reader an idea of what types of attitudes, motivations, and socio-cultural factors can be related to the incidence of rape in these societies. This article proves interesting to both students and professors, especially those who thought they knew everything there is to know on the subject of rape. In classes where discussion might be hindered by immaturity or insensitivity, the study of rape can be directed more towards the academic than the emotional and this article would be very useful then. Readings for Students Gerstein, Beth. "Rape: Violence Against Women" from Sermons Seldom Heard: Women Proclaim Their Lives. New York: Crossroad Publishing Co., 1991, pp. 40- 51. This brief sermon by Beth Gerstein, a rape crisis counselor in Boston, encompasses the history and struggles of the anti-rape movement, a brief history of rape and rape statistics, and a personal account of her rape in 1983. The article is moving and can set the tone for a serious and emotionally evoking discussion in class. I feel this article is a must read for the professor and would serve as an asset to the Colloquy syllabus. The length is short and the level of writing is not very difficult so it can be combined with one or more additional readings for one class meeting period. Gordon, Margaret T. and Stephanie Riger. The Female Fear: The Social Cost of Rape. Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1989. "Every woman has it to a degree, and all women are affected by it." (Gordon and Riger, p. 3) The Female Fear is the result of a research project conducted by Gordon and Riger in Chicago. This book describes the fear that women live with every day of their lives and the emotions that a rape victim lives with in the aftermath, how fear keeps women in a subordinate and oppressed state and suggestions for coping with fear. This book is well suited to Colloquy level students and to co-ed classes because it does not attempt in any way to accuse all men for the problem of rape. There are certain chapters which could promote a healthy and open conversation in the classroom about rape without making students feel uncomfortable. These include chapters one through four, and chapters seven and ten: they discuss women's fear of and women's trauma after a rape, and exploitation of women's fear and what society can do about it. Madigan, Lee and Nancy C. Gamble. The Second Rape: Society's Continued Betrayal of the Victim. New York: Lexington Books, 1989. Madigan and Gamble are interested in exposing what they feel is a second rape in our society that begins the moment a woman decides to "tell." "The second rape is the act of violation, alienation and disparagement a survivor receives when she turns to others for help and support." (Madigan and Gamble, p. S) The book gives a brief history of rap and rape attitudes, then moves on to testimonies of survivors and their experiences within the "system." The second half of the book focuses on the second rapists and shows, very candidly, the attitudes of these so called helpers to the victims. This book is fitting for Colloquy because of its ability to put the reader in the shoes of the victim and exemplify the horrors that a woman who has been raped has to face if she wants to seek justice or help. I highly recommend this book for both faculty and student use. Resources for Faculty Books/Articles General: Brownmiller, Susan. Against Our Will: Men, Women, and Rape. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1975. This books serves as an excellent background on feminist perspectives on rape, the history of rape (with specific focus on the United States), and male power over women (in the legal system, as a form of social control). Also included is discussion of rape in war, rape and sexual abuse of children, rape victims' psychological trauma, and actual testimony from rape victims. I recommend the book in its entirety to the professor who is searching for a comprehensive work on rape history. There are individual sections, however, that are especially relevant to specific courses and are accessible to first year students: for history professors chapter three discusses rape during war time and focuses on World Wars I, II, Bangladesh, and Vietnam, and chapter 5 talks about rape in American history. For professors who teach criminology and other such related courses chapters six and eight concentrate on the law, police, and prison. Professors wishing to include discussion of race may be inclined to use chapter seven; however, a reading of Angela Davis' article, "Rape, Racism and the Myth of the Black Rapist" is a must if you are teaching about race and rape to Colloquy students. All in all, the book is a good resource and starting place for professors unfamiliar with the subject. Griffin, Susan. "Rape: The All-American Crime." Rape Victimology. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas Publisher, 1975, pp. 19-39. The article, although dated, serves as one of the first presentations of rape as an instrument of power. There is discussion of fear of rape, rape as a learned behavior, rape myths. Griffin feels that a male dominated society rewards aggressive sexual behavior, and since men define the standards of "chastity" and women who do not conform to these standards are candidates for rap, rap keeps women in their place. In addition, Griffin explores rap laws and discusses their ability to protect the rights of men as possessors of women. This article is almost a must in the literature of rape education for both students and professors. Russell, Diana. The Politics of Rape. New York: Stein and Day Publishers, 1974. The book is centered around twenty-two interviews with rape victims discussing the subject from the victim's perspective, and it rebuts many popular rap myths. Russell also contributes to the early literature on marital rap in this book. She sees rap as the result of the different socialization of males and females. Other subjects include rape prevention, alternatives and reforms to present solutions, and some interviews with rapists. Like Brownmiller and Griffin, Russell's writings are part of the "canon" on rap. This book can be used as a reference and reading for both professor and student on issues of the victim, rapist, race, and rape in our society, or for the seven page bibliography of early works on rap. Cross-Cultural/Multi-Cultural: Sanday, Peggy Reeves. "The Socio-Cultural Context of Rape: A Cross-Cultural Study," Journal of Social Issues 37, 4: 1981, pp. S-27. This study debunks the notion of many earlier researchers that rap exists in all cultures around the world and always has. Sanday, an anthropologist, looks at 156 tribal societies and provides a description of "rape prone" and "rape free" societies. In addition, she gives the reader an idea of what types of attitudes, motivations, and socio-cultural factors can be related to the incidence of rap in these societies. This article proves interesting to both students and professors, especially those who thought they knew everything there is to know on the subject of rap. In classes where discussion might be hindered by immaturity or insensitivity, the study of rap can be directed more towards the academic than the emotional and this article would be very useful then. Marital Rape Finkelhor, David and Kersti Yllo. License to Rape. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1985. Finkelhor and Yllo provide an in depth discussion of the issues surrounding the problem of marital rap. Chapters one and two used together provide a shocking but truthful description/introduction to the topic. Chapters three, four and five delve further into the subject and describe the types of rap, who raps his wife, and the difference between marital rap and marital sexuality. The last four chapters are useful to the discussion of solving the problem of marital rap through changes in law and attitudes. Although marital rape is not a problem for many college students a useful discussion on date rape can result from reading some sections of this book, especially the last four chapters on law and attitude change. This book is not a difficult read and is already being used in a two-hundred level course, but I would not assign the whole thing to a Colloquy class. Rather, the professor would benefit from a full reading, and then choosing chapters that are applicable to other readings being assigned or to the expertise of the professor. Russell, Diana. Rape in Marriage. New York: Collier Books, 1982. Russell provides a complete look at the issue of marital rape. She covers subjects from the law, theory and statistics to studies of the men and women involved in marital rape. She discusses women as property and the extreme violence against women, and ends with some of the strategies women use to get out or cope with abusive marriages. Russell also looks at marital rape cross-culturally in the last chapter. Her writing is accessible to students and I strongly recommend that this book, accompanied by Finkelhor and Yllo, be used for a presentation or paper on marital rape. Race and Rape: Davis, Angela Y. "Rape, Racism and the Myth of the Black Rapist" from Women, Race, and Class. New York: Vintage Books, 1983, pp. 172-201. This article provides one Black feminist's perspective on attitudes towards rape, the involvement of women of color in the anti-rape movement, and how racism encourages sexual violence/coercion. I recommend this article to any professor who is looking for information on the intersection between the race and rape issues. This is not, however, an article I would readily assign to first year students. Societal Attitudes/Female Fear: Gordon, Margaret T. and Stephanie Riger. The Female Fear: The Social Cost of Rape. Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1989. "Every woman has it to a degree, and all women are affected by it." (Gordon and Riger, p. 3) The Female Fear is the result of a research project conducted by Gordon and Riger in Chicago. This book describes the fear that women live with every day of their lives and the emotions that a rap victim lives with in the aftermath, how fear keeps women in a subordinate and oppressed state and suggestions for coping with fear. This book is well suited to Colloquy level students and to co-ed classes because it does not attempt in any way to accuse all men for the problem of rape. There are certain chapters which could promote a healthy and open conversation in the classroom about rap without making students feel uncomfortable. These include chapters one through four, and chapters seven and ten: they discuss women's fear of and women's trauma after a rap, and exploitation of women's fear and what society can do about it. Societal Attitudes/ Victim's Perspective: Madigan, Lee and Nancy C. Gamble. The Second Rape: Society's Continued Betrayal of the Victim. New York: Lexington Books, 1989. Madigan and Gamble are interested in exposing what they feel is a second rape in our society that begins the moment a woman decides to "tell." "The second rape is the act of violation, alienation and disparagement a survivor perceives when she turns to others for help and support." (Madigan and Gamble, p. 5) The book does a brief history of rape and rape attitudes, then moves on to testimonies of survivors and their experiences within the "system." The second half of the book focuses on the second rapists and shows, very candidly, the attitudes of these so called helpers to the victims. This book is fitting for Colloquy because of its ability to put the reader in the shoes of the victim and exemplify the horrors that a woman who has been raped has to face if she wants to seek justice or help. I highly recommend this book for both faculty and student use. Gerstein, Beth. "Rape: Violence Against Women" from Sermons Seldom Heard: Women Proclaim Their Lives. New York: Crossroad Publishing Co., 1991. pp. 40-51. This brief sermon by Beth Gerstein, a rape crisis counselor in Boston, encompasses the history and struggles of the anti-rape movement, a brief history of rape and rape statistics, and a personal account of her rape in 1983. The article is moving and can set the tone for a serious and emotionally evoking discussion in class. I feel this article is a must read for the professor and would serve as an asset to the Colloquy syllabus. The length is short and the level of writing is not very difficult so it can be combined with one or more additional readings for one class meeting period. Videos for Classroom "Can't You See Me: Rape Consequences and Recovery." San Diego CA: World Research Inc., 1984. 20 min. The film is a drama of an acquaintance rape of a college student by one of her professors. She takes the proper course through our system of medical treatment, counseling, and prosecution and the professor is found guilty. The film ends with a monologue about the facts and statistics on rape/acquaintance rape, and where more information or help may be available. The video comes with a 25 page guide which includes a 45 minute presentation to accompany the viewing of the movie, a fact sheet, discussion and debate questions, a list of solutions, some ways to help students understand victims' and families' emotions/reactions, and a list of additional resources. "Rethinking Rape." San Francisco, CA: Diner and Allied Film and Video Services, 1980. 25 min. This film is in documentary format, and is based around interviews with rape victims, a rape counselor, a sociologist, and activists in the anti-rape movement. There are focuses on acquaintance rape and on how the images portrayed in the media and the actions in everyday society shape and reinforce our attitudes towards rape, that rape exists, therefore, on a continuum with sexism in our society. Former model Anne Singleton talks about pornography's effect on rape attitudes, and there is discussion at the end of the video on how men and women are working hard and need to continue to work to solve the problem on rape. No materials accompany this video. Model Syllabus Each day have students come prepared with a written paragraph, to be handed in, addressing their reactions to the assigned reading for the day. This will serve as a starting point to each class or as a discussion focus if there is a lull or digression in the conversation. Monday Reading: Margaret T. Gordon and Stephanie Riger, The Female Fear, chapters 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 10. Discussion questions: Chapter One - Looking at the environments that you have grown up in, what situations or events do you think taught you the fear of rape? Chapter Two - Turn to the table on pages 16 - 18 and ask to see hands for those who never or always do certain activities (professor should pick four or five of the strategies before hand). Use the responses to show the class how pervasive fear is on campus. Chapter Three - Do you agree with the statement made on page 28, "Clearly, among college students, sexual aggression is rare among strangers and common among acquaintances." What do you know about acquaintance rape and what are the college's policies on it? Who do you report something like this to and have you ever known anyone who has been the victim of an acquaintance rape? Chapter Four - Without consulting your books, list as many rape trauma syndrome reactions as you can remember that were described in chapter four. Which ones have you heard about before, which ones are new to you? Chapter Seven - As a homework assignment to be completed for Monday's class, have the students locate a recent article in a newspaper or magazine which reports a rape. Ask them to use Table 7.2 on pages 71 - 73 and to find the information in the article which is listed in the first column of the table. How did their article compare to the media's representation as portrayed in column two of the table? What impact, if any, did the article have on the student? Chapter Ten - "...research and activism over the last ten years have suggested several socially responsible approaches to the problem of female fear." (Gordon and Riger, p. 126) On the blackboard, make a list of these approaches including those listed in the book and any ideas the students might have which they find "socially responsible." Pick a few and discuss their possible implementation: costs, target populations, who would regulate and who would enforce, etc. Wednesday Reading: Lee Madigan and Nancy Gamble, The Second Rape, Parts I & II. Discussion questions: Parts I & II - Have the students write a sentence for each rape story describing from their own point of view the type of rape, the rapist, and the victim. Ask each to share what they have written and then discuss the discrepancies. Often students will see situations and those involved in different ways - discuss how your own perspective influences how we understand other people's experiences such as these rapes, how did the authors' perspectives as psychologists affect their interpretations. Friday Reading: Lee Madigan and Nancy Gamble, The Second Rape, Parts III & IV. Discussion questions: Spend the first fifteen minutes of class discussing Part III: - "Women never ask to be raped, but there is a certain type of woman who is culpable, apathetic, and ignorant. We call her HUA for 'head up her ass.' She's unable to sever former destructive relationships, and she may have a propensity to being victimized. She likes to get attention. She needs to know that somebody cares." (Madigan and Gamble, p. 74) What are some reactions to this and other quotes in the chapters of Part III? What is the general attitude of each of these institutions towards rape victims according to Madigan and Gamble? Show video "Can't You See Me." Spend last part of class comparing what was seen in the video to the knowledge the students have gained through Parts III and IV of Madigan and Gamble and to chapter 10 of Gordon and Riger. Was the situation portrayed in the movie representative of what happens in reality to a rape victim? You are a documentary film maker, what kind of things would you present in a film on the second rape? INCORPORATING THE ISSUE OF RAPE INTO AN INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY COURSE Christina D. Cammarata Course Overview This course is designed to introduce students to the field of psychology. Psychology is the science of behavior and mental processes. "This course will teach students some of the prominent theoretical perspectives in psychology and show them how to think within these perspectives" (Cain & Siviy, 1992). It is designed to familiarize students with some basic concepts and classic and current research findings within the vast psychology field. Lastly, this course teaches students ways to think about research critically and ways in which psychologists gather their data. This psychology course tries to ensure students' learning by encouraging them to think actively and critically about the material and apply the concepts learned to everyday life. The textbooks which are used to learn the basic concepts of psychology are: Basic Psychology, by Gleitman, and Psychology, by Tavris and Wade. Incorporating Material About Rape This course introduces several issues of rape as it is connected to research in psychology. Students can learn about rape in relation to psychological topics such as the biological basis of social behavior, emotions, and social psychology. The issues of rape that arise in relation to these psychological topics are: the victim's experience, the victim's and the rapist's view of rap, the influence of pornography on males' propensity to rape, rape as a universal violence against women, the prevalence of rape in different areas of the world, rape prevention, and counseling the victim. Rape can be incorporated under the topic of biological basis of social behavior. The biological basis of social behavior focuses on: the social nature of humans, built-in social behaviors, biological sources of aggression, and sexual behavior. There is a large amount of research on the notion that rape is a disease among men. In other words, it is believed that all men are born highly capable of raping women. Therefore, rape is a violent sexual act which is compared to a disease spreading across the male population. The biological basis of social behavior focuses on different biological systems affecting the conduct of a human being. These include: the brain and the nervous system, body rhythms and mental states, and sensation and perception. The textbook, Psychology, by Tavris and Wade, would be relevant to read since it discusses the mental states of rapists. This textbook proposes that rape is a disorder because it only affects men. However, if rape is considered a disorder among men, then these men who rape would not be held responsible for their crimes. Next, Scully's book, Understanding Sexual Violence, further studies whether rape is an act of violence of which all men are capable. In other words, are all men born with a sexual notion that rape is an acceptable act of violence which is committed against women? Also, the Peggy Reeves Sanday study examines whether men are born biologically to rape. She finds that rape varies across cultures. Therefore, Sanday concludes that rape is not a biological basis of social behavior. Men are not born with the notion to rape but are socialized in their individual societies to perform sexual violence against women. Discussion Questions for Class: - From your knowledge of the DSM-III-R, do you think rape should be considered a disorder? - What would happen if rape were considered a disorder? Would more men rape? Do you believe rape is a social behavior with a biological base among men? Rape could also be included under the topic of emotions by focusing on the emotions of the victim. Psychology studies several aspects of emotions. These include: the attitudes of individuals, the perceptions of others, the perception of oneself, and the perception of one's own inner states. Psychological studies have shown that women are viewed as more emotional than men. These studies have proved that women express their emotions more often and more openly. This leads to the psychological dilemma: should one keep his/her emotions to him/herself or let them all out after a traumatic experience such as rape? Rape: Victims of Crisis, written by Burgess and Holmstrom, focuses on the emotions and view of the victim and the victim's family. It deals with the issue of counseling the victim and the victim's family to open up their emotions to each other in the context of dealing with the traumatic experience of rape. A psychology experiment which also deals with the victim and the victim's family counseling is "Once a princess, always a princess: a strategy for therapy with families of rape victims" by Feinauer and Hippolite (1987). This study uses short metaphorical stories to help the victim and her family experience, reexperience and decide how to respond to this traumatic event through open expression of their emotions. The experiment found that reintegration of their emotions helped the victim and her family to handle the traumatic experience better and more openly. The other book which concentrates on emotions is Rape and Inequality, by Herman Schwendinger and Julia Schwendinger. The book has an entire chapter on the victim's explanation of her experience and emotions from the trauma of being raped. It focuses on all of the aspects of emotions: the attitudes of individuals, the perceptions of others, the perception of oneself (the victim herself), and the perception of the victim's own inner states. A psychology study which concentrates its efforts on discovering the perceptions of the rapist is "Convicted rapists' perceptions of self and victim: Role taking and emotions" by Diana Scully (1988). This study found that the majority of male rapists do not experience emotions, (i.e., guilt or shame), after having raped a woman. Scully (1988) proposes that this is caused by the gender imbalance of power and the status of women as property; therefore, men's emotions are inoperative in sexual violence against women. Discussion Questions for Class: - After learning about sex differences in emotions, do you think that men would be less emotional about a trauma in their lives than women would be about being raped? - What would you think are the emotions of a rapist after he has raped a woman? Happy or sad about his actions? Explain. - Evidently, many women who have been raped keep it a secret. After learning about emotions, in your opinion, do you think it is better to let all your emotions out (tell someone you were raped) or keep them inside (keep it a secret with yourself)? The last and most important topic to include rape under is that of social psychology. Social psychology studies the social interactions of individuals. It focuses on social exchange (i.e., one-on-one interactions, relating to others), social influence (i.e., conformity), and crowd behavior (i.e., many persons interacting with many other persons). One can examine the relationship between rape and the influence of social conformity in society. Hock's studies on conformity in society found that the conformity of males socially influences them to use violence against women. Also, Benson, Charlton and Goodhart (1992) researched the prevalence of acquaintance rape on campuses. Their research found that conformity and sex role socialization promotes the beliefs about women that lead to rape. At this point, "Playing the Game" (1987) would be a very good movie to show to students. It discusses the issue of rape on campus and the influence of conformity on males. Next, Gordon and Riger's book, The Female Fear - The Social Cost of Rape, clearly fits under the topic of social psychology in that it discusses rape in today's society, society's response to rape and coping strategies for the victim. It studies the social exchange of both individuals who have experienced rape and their friends and families' reactions to their trauma. Also, it studies society's response, otherwise known as crowd behavior in psychology. Discussion Questions for Class: - From what you have learned about conformity, do you believe rape is the result of the conformity of males or do you think rape would occur even if conformity did not exist? At this point, the influence of pornography on rape can be incorporated into social psychology. Pornography is a social influence upon men. It inspires male friends to socially exchange their thoughts on different pornographic movies. This causes more men to consistently rent or buy different pornographic movies of which they have heard and spread the word to others. Once again, this leads to "crowd behavior." Many men exchange their suggestions on different pornographic movies. As can be seen, men conform by watching pornographic films which give them ideas of violence to use against women. Scully's book and Tavris and Wade's textbook both concentrate on the influence of pornography on rape in today's society. They discuss the social influence of pornography upon men which leads to sexual violence against women. Furthermore, MacKinnon discusses the role of the legal system in both rape cases and the issue of pornography's existence in today's society. Her book focuses on both the social influence of pornography and the social exchange of men which inspires more men to watch pornography and learn more ways to use sexual violence against women. Discussion Questions for Class: - From what you have learned about social influence, is pornography a social influence which inspires men to conform and use sexual violence against women? - In your opinion, if there were no social exchange between men, would pornography have the same influence? Lastly, rape prevention is another important subtopic of rape in relation to social psychology. All aspects of social psychology (social influence, social exchange, and crowd behavior) could help end sexual violence against women. If all people conform to the notion that rape is atrocious and must be terminated, maybe rape would become nonexistent. Both social exchange and crowd behavior could inspire people to put an end to sexual violence against women. Brownmiller's book includes an entire chapter on ways to fight the violence of men against women in today's society. She speaks of people conforming to different ways of destroying the existence of rape in today's society. Discussion Question for Class: - In relation to what you have learned about social psychology (i.e., social influence, social exchange, crowd behavior), what are some strategies/solutions to decrease the amount of sexual violence against women? Reading Assignments for Students: Brownmiller, Susan. Against our Will: Men, Women and Rape. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1975. This book is easy to understand and teaches the basic facts about rape. It argues that men rap because of their dominance over women. Furthermore, women are powerless in comparison to men in our society; once a man feels his power being threatened by a woman, he may respond by using sexual violence against her. This book is relevant to this course because it teaches uninformed students several different issues of rape. It explains all aspects of rape; however, the last chapter, "Women Fight Back," should be the last assignment for students so that they will be aware of ways to fight the dominance and violence of men against women in today's society. Gleitman, Henry. Basic Psychology. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 1992. This is a great textbook for students to use for learning the basic concepts of psychology for this introductory course. The concepts learned from this book can be applied to the aspects of rape in which students are learning in this course. It is a simple and easy to understand psychology textbook for Psychology 101 students. Hock, Roger R. Forty Studies That Changed Psychology. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1992. This book of empirical studies has two studies which pertain to rape in chapter 10. "The Power of Conformity" study provides evidence to prove that people conform in society to what everybody else does; this relates to rape by the conformity of males in using violence against women. The "To Help or Not To Help" study demonstrates that people who witnessed an attack against a woman did not help; this behavior by witnesses does not help decrease the number of attacks against women. Who will help us? Schwendinger, Herman and Julia R. Rape and Inequality. California: Sage Publications, Inc., 1983. This book answers all the questions students might have about rape. It is easy to understand and details all aspects of rape. lt is an especially important book when studying emotions. The authors explain how victims handle their emotions and ways to help victims in coping with their emotions. Chapters to focus on are: 2 - a victim explains her experience and emotions from the trauma, 3 - different forms of rape, 8 - rape is not universal and sexism does not exist everywhere, 14 - priorities for rape prevention. Tavris, Carol & Carole Wade. Psychology. New York: Harper & Row, 1990. This textbook is great for psych 101 students. It is the only psychology textbook which approaches the topic of rape in two different instances. The first instance explains the correlation between rape and pornography. The second instance proposes the idea that rape is a disorder because it only affects men. This second instance is a great discussion topic for students. Resources for Faculty Material Written by Psychologists: Burgess, Ann Wolbert, and Lynda Lytle Holmstrom. Rape: Victims of Crisis. Maryland: Robert J. Brady Co., 1974. This book is essentially important because it describes both the victim's and rapist's view of rape, reactions by family and community to rape, and different methods of counseling rape victims. It helps when studying emotions in psychology. The book describes the emotions of the victim and ways for her to cope with these emotions. Chapters 10 through 18 are most relevant to the psychology course since it teaches ways of counseling the victims. This would also fit in under the subtopic of emotions since counseling these victims will help them cope with their emotions. Benson, D., Charlton, C. & Goodhart, F. "Acquaintance rape on campus: A literature review," Journal of American College Health, 40, 157 - 165, 1992. This review researched the prevalence of acquaintance rape on campus. It discusses the legal issues, adolescent attitudes, rapists' and victims' characteristics, and suggestions for prevention. It shows that conformity and sex role socialization promotes the growth of sexual violence against women. It should be read to further learn about the influence of conformity upon males. Feinauer, L. & Hippolite, D. "Once a princess, always a princess: A strategy for therapy with families of rape victims," Contemporary Family Therapy An International Journal, 9, 252-262, 1987. This study used short metaphorical stories which the rape victim and her family experienced, reexperienced, and redecided how to deal with the traumatic event of rape. Subjects learned to use open expression of their emotions to recover from the traumatic event. Therefore, this is a good study to read when focusing on the aspect of emotions in the issue of rape. Scully, Diane. "Convicted rapists' perceptions of self and victim: Role taking and emotions," Gender & Society, 2, 20()-213, 1987. This experiment studies the perceptions of rapists. The study demonstrated that males did not define their behavior as rape and a majority of these subjects did not experience any emotions towards rap (i.e., guilt or shame). Scully attributes this to the gender imbalance of power and the status of women as property. Therefore, these social aspects cause males to have no emotions in sexual violence against women. This is great study to read when discussing emotions with the class. Feminist Perspectives on Rape: General Information on Rape: Gordon, Margaret T. and Stephanie Riger. The Female Fear - The Social Cost of Rape. Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1991. This book explains the basic facts about rape, gives data on areas where rape is most prevalent, explains society's response to rap, teaches the politics of rape, and explains possible coping strategies for victims of rape. Focus on chapter 8 - coping strategies. This chapter discusses coping strategies for victims of rape which would be strongly important to teach to psychologists counseling victims. It is a good chapter for those interested in ways to counsel rape victims. Scully, Diana. Understanding Sexual Violence. Great Britain: Harper Collins Academic, 1991. This book details all aspects of rape. Focus on chapters 2 and 7 which explain the different problems of rape; these chapters essentially discuss the psychological views of rape. Chapter 2 discusses whether rape is a disease among men and the legitimization of rape through pornography. Chapter 7 further examines the types of men who rape and the notion that patriarchy in today's society contributes to all sexual violence against women. Russell, Diana E.H. The Politics of Rape. New York: Stein and Day, 1974. This book concentrates its efforts on explaining the different influences contributing to the prevalence of rape in society. Chapters 24 and 25 differentiate the female and male view of rape. It is a good chapter to teach the unfortunate beliefs which discriminate the female in today's society and contribute to further violence against women. Specific Information on Rape: MacKinnon, Catherine A. Feminism Unmodified: Discourses on Life and Law. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1983. Focus on chapter 9 in this book written by a feminist. MacKinnon, a very influential radical feminist and lawyer, teaches the laws of rape and the fact that these laws are not strictly enforced; it teaches the few legalities of rape. This book helps give a good explanation of the legal system in rape cases. Sanday, Peggy Reeves. "The Socio-Cultural Context of Rape: A Cross-Cultural Study," Journal of Social Issues, 37, 5-27, 1981. This empirical study does a cross-cultural examination on rap in various societies. It teaches that rap is not universal and varies across societies. It gets rid of the myth that all males have a strong tendency to rap and are born biologically to rape. It teaches that culture influences the occurrence of rape. Lesson Plans Topic: Biological Basis of Social Behavior Faculty: Scully, Understanding Sexual Violence. Sanday, "The Socio-Cultural Context of Rape: A Cross-Cultural Study." Students: Readings: Tavris and Wade, Psychology, Part Two. Focus on pgs. 112-114, 478-480, 580. Brownmiller, Against Our Will, chapter 1. Gleitman, Basic Psychology, ch. 9. Assignment: Group Project You have learned about the sex differences between males and females as a biological basis of social behavior. As a group, discuss and write a two page paper on how these sex differences can be attributed to the notion that males rape and females are always the victims. Topic: Emotions Faculty: Burgess and Holmstrom, Rape: Victims of Crisis. Scully, "Convicted Rapists' Perceptions of Self and Victim: Role Taking and Emotions." Feinauer and Hippolite, "Once A Princess, Always A Princess: A Strategy for Therapy with Families of Rape Victims." Students: Readings: Tavris and Wade, Psychology, chapter 9. Schwendinger and Schwendinger, Rape and Inequality, chapter 2. Gleitman, Basic Psychology. ch. 11. Assignment: Individual paper Individually, write a two page paper on the following dilemma: Suppose you were raped. After having learned about emotions, answer the following questions using much thought and detail: -What are the attitudes of the individuals around you toward rape? -How do you think others would perceive you after you had been raped? -How would you perceive yourself after being raped? -What would your perception of your own inner states be after you had been raped? -Which theory do you think would be best to use after being raped - the "bottled up" theory or the "let it all out" theory? Topic: Social Psychology Faculty: Gordon and Riger, The Female Fear - The Social Cost of Rape. MacKinnon, Feminism Unmodified: Discourses on Life and Law. Benson, Charlton, and Goodhart, "Acquaintance Rape on Campus: A Literature Review." Students: Readings: Tavris and Wade, Psychology, chapter 18. Hock, Forty Studies That Changed Psychology, pp. 287-301. Tavris and Wade, Psychology, p. 57. Gleitman, Basic Psychology, ch. 12. Brownmiller, Against Our Will: Men, Women, and Rape, ch. 12. Film: National Fraternity Life, "Playing the Game," 1987, (20 min.). Assignment: Group Project As a group project, write a paper on the effects of social influence, social exchange, and crowd behavior on rape. Explain the effects by giving an example of a story in each condition. INCORPORATING THE ISSUE OF PORNOGRAPHY INTO AN INTRODUCTORY SOCIOLOGY COURSE Katharine F. Burke Course Overview Sociology is the study of people and the ways in which they are shaped by their society. The introductory course is designed to help the student understand how the social structure (such as norms, values and institutions) influences the individual's experiences, attitudes, personality, and behaviors. This course also places an emphasis on the influence of class, race and gender on the dispersion of "rewards" and "resources" in society (Gill, course syllabus, spring, 1993). One of the goals of Introductory Sociology is to relay an understanding of both the sociological viewpoint and the fundamental sociological ideas. Furthermore, this course aids students in the comprehension of relationships between personal and public issues as well as developing the student's awareness of social class, race and gender in regards to "resources," "life chances" and "personality." By the end of the course the students should be able to demonstrate how personality and self- image are shaped by society through the socialization process. Hopefully, it will also encourage them to realistically and imaginatively confront possibilities for social change (Gill, spring, 1993). Incorporating Material on Pornography Pornography is an issue that cannot be ignored in today's society. It affects or has an effect on just about everyone. Many believe that pornography contributes to the ways in which people are shaped and molded into society. Many also argue that pornography is a deviant form of behavior which can be attributed to socialization. Many also argue that pornography degrades women and denotes them as sexual objects who are exploited by men. These issues are important when discussing pornography and its relevance to sociology. Therefore, this topic is worthy of being examined from a sociological point of view. There are many areas within an introductory course on Sociology into which material on pornography can be incorporated. First of all, there have been many sociological studies conducted on this issue and these can be used to exemplify sociological theory and methods. The professor can choose which of these articles to assign to the students. The article by Donnerstein & Linz discusses how influential aggressive behavior is on men's attitudes towards women. (This article might also be useful to discuss within the gender inequality section). Jeanette Norris' article attempts to discover how much impact social influence had on sexual reactions to sexually explicit material involving violence in men and women. (This article might also be reflected on within the socialization section because of its relevance to social influences). These articles would be good sources to discuss methods and theory because they both show how researchers present their work in a format that includes the hypotheses, the sample used, the theories involved, the data and results obtained, the analysis of the results, and the conclusions stating whether or not the hypotheses were supported. Some suggestions for discussion might be to have the student take the article apart bit by bit and explain how method and theory were incorporated into the article. Because pornography is a somewhat deviant topic, it might be interesting for the students to do a sociological study in which they select a sample (perhaps including their peers from the college community) to whom they ask questions regarding the individual's background (socialization) and their view of pornography. They could collect and analyze the data in order to interpret and develop conclusions about their peers' views on their research/study. Pornography can also be used in the section concerning deviance, as suggested earlier. It is at this point in the curriculum where the movie "Not a Love Story" can be shown. This movie portrays pornography as a typical. It's a documentary that educates a pornographic dancer into the realization that pornography can be very faulty, harmful and immoral. This woman had originally believed that pornography was an acceptable form of behavior, it was just another way to make money. She had obviously been socialized into accepting pornography. The documentary changed her views on this. She now found pornography, in most cases, very degrading and deviant. The movie should not take up class time; rather the students should watch it in their own time. (The best way to handle this is to make it optional, since it is fairly graphic, and to hold it on reserve in the library to make it easily accessible). Discussion might involve how individuals regard the norms and values of pornographic images. For instance, are some forms of pornography more acceptable than others? Is pornography a deviant form of behavior? If so, then why? Questions relevant for discussion in regard to deviance might ask how and/or why pornography is deviant. Are views on pornography brought about through the socialization process? Is it immoral to partake in pornography? What makes it deviant? Some may argue it is not deviant. This question will hopefully start a small debate. Students may feel that there is no difference between pornography and erotica; the question of whether or not there is a difference between the two may also trigger a debate. Deviant behavior ranges from one extreme to the next. Discussion on Gloria Steinem's article on distinguishing pornography from erotica is also an excellent source for the student to read because it sees pornography from two angles; that it is deviant, and that is not bad at all. Gender inequality is yet another section in the syllabus for which pornography holds significant relevance. In the Henslin anthology, Scully and Marolla's article, "Convicted Rapists Describe the Rewards of Rape" discusses pornography briefly. It is important for the students to learn about the different types of violence against women. This article talks about both pornography and rape as violence against women. Excerpts from For Adult Users Only would be a good source for the professor to read in regard to gender inequality. This source defines pornography in a number of ways which helps determine its relationship to violence against women. Furthermore Andrea Dworkin's Pornography: Men Possessing Women, pp. 199- 202 defines pornography in relation to men and women. The professor might want to read more than what is assigned to the students. For instance, the two excerpts from John Stoltenberg's Refusing to be a Man are good sources. Each of these articles will give the professor an idea of the gender inequality that exists within the pornography industry. Discussion questions regarding gender inequality in pornography could revolve around the issue of how men maintain power over women. Do all men benefit from pornography? Do women benefit from pornography? The professor might bring in a "Playboy" and a "Playgirl" for the students to compare. How are women portrayed in pornography compared to men? This might create problems of sexual harassment for women in the class so it would be best to handle this diplomatically as well as objectively. It's important to point out to the students that this discussion is not a debate; it is merely a comparison of the two publications. Instead of a discussion on it, it might be better for the students to do a small writing assignment describing the differences and/or similarities between the two different magazines. The relevance this has to sociology is that it is important to see how men and women are either portrayed similarly or differently in today's society. If they are portrayed differently we want to know why. The differences and similarities exist from both the personal and public perspectives. How is the self-image shaped for men and women through pornography? At some point in discussion during the section on socialization, the professor might want to emphasize pornography and the early ages at which one starts viewing pornographic magazines and how this might attribute to certain levels of aggression. In the Henslin anthology "Sexuality and Gender in Children's Daily Worlds," by Thorne and Luria, touches on this. There are two other good sources for the student to read. The first is from Take Back the Night; it's an article entitled "Child Pornography." This will tie in nicely with what has already been assigned. The second source is the Hevener research article on attitudes towards censorship. A good question regarding socialization and pornography may include whether or not children start at a young age and are conditioned to accept pornography from the beginning. Can one be socialized into and/or out of accepting pornography and what it stands for? Furthermore, is pornography more prevalent in certain classes? Also, does personality play a role in the individual's perception and/or involvement in or with pornography? Finally, there has been a lot of material published on this issue of pornography concerning what, if anything, should be done about it. The student should read Susan Brownmiller's "Excerpt from Against Our Will: Men, Women and Rape." She discusses social movements and what actions feminists and liberals feel should be taken against pornography. Discussion involving social movements may include whether or not Brownmiller's suggestions on taking action are reasonable or not. And if so, how does this affect the individual in society? It's important to keep in mind that obviously not everything that has been discussed can be included in an Introductory Sociology. These are merely suggestions on how to incorporate this topic into this class. Suggested Readings for Students Brownmiller, Susan. "Excerpt on Pornography from Against Our Will: Men, Women and Rape. In Laura Lederer (Ed.), Take Back the Night, New York: William Morrow and Couglne, 1975. This excerpt discusses what both feminists and liberals feel should be done about pornography. She discusses pornography as an issue relevant to gender inequality. Pornography affects individuals in society and these feminists feel that something should be done about it. Donnerstein, Edward and Daniel Linz. "Mass-Media Sexual Violence and Male Viewers." In Michael S. Kimmel (Ed.), Changing Men: New Directions in Research on Men and Masculinity, Newbury Park, California: Sage Publications, 1987, pp. 198-215. This theory and research article showed evidence of how influential aggressive pornography in mass media is on men's attitudes and behaviors toward women. It is a good example to discuss methods and theory because the article shows how the researchers present their work. It has a format that includes their hypotheses, the sample used, the theories involved, the data and results obtained, the analysis of the results, and the conclusions stating whether or not the hypotheses were supported. Dworkin, Andrea. Pornography: Men Possessing Women. New York: G.P. Putnum's Sons, 1971, pp. 13-47. Dworkin discusses men and their powers to produce and consume women through pornography. Pornography is not seen as the symbolic reality of the photograph in which there is a relationship between two women; it is the symbolic reality expressed in which women are exposed purposefully to excite a male viewer. By reading this the students can see pornography from a public perspective and whether or not self-image is shaped by society (norms and values). 68. Resource Guide Dworkin, Andrea. Pornography: Men Possessing Women. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1971, pp. 199-202. This chapter entitled "Pornography" defines pornography in a literal sense. This can be used for general knowledge on the subject and the students can relate the definition to individuals (both in a personal sense and a public sense). Is pornography defined in relation to the social sphere? Henslin, James M. (ed.) Down to Earth Sociology. New York: Free Press, 1993. This is an introductory anthology used in Dr. Sandra Gill's spring semester, 1993, Introductory Sociology class. The chapter on deviance is especially relevant. The two relevant articles include "Convicted Rapists Describe the Rewards of Rape" by Diana Scully and Joseph Marolla, pp. 46 61; and "Sexuality and Gender in Children's Daily Worlds" by Barrie Thorne and Zella Luria, pp. 133-144. Hevener, Fillmer, "College Students' Attitudes Toward Censorship of Sexual Explicitness," College Student Journal, June, 1990, pp. 167-172. This research article discusses how much freedom an individual should have in choosing what he/she reads and views in terms of sexual explicitness. This is also another good example that could be used in explaining methods and theories through sociological journal articles. Klein, Bonnie Sherr. "Not a Love Story." New York: National Film Board of Canada, 1983. This is a documentary film on pornography. It is explicit in its meaning and uses theories in discussing pornography. Norris, Jeanette, "Social Influence Effects on Responses to Sexually Explicit Material Containing Violence," Journal of Sex Research, Feb., 1991, pp. 67-76. This sociological study was conducted in order to discover how much impact social influence had on sexual and affective reactions to sexually explicit material involving violence in men and women. Rush, Florence. "Child Pornography." In Laura Lederer (Ed.), Take Back the Night, New York: William Morrow and Couglne, 1979. This article discusses children's involvement with pornography. Children are placed in the same category as women; they are objects to be degraded. She also discusses why children have been a target for the pornography issue. Steinem, Gloria. "Erotica and Pornography: A Clear and Present Difference." In Laura Lederer (Ed.), Take Back the Night, New York: William Morrow and Couglne, 1979. This article, originally published in Ms. magazine, discusses how to distinguish pornography from erotica. This article can be used in discussion of deviance because it discusses pornography as deviant. Society makes it that way unless you see it from a different angle; one that is a form of erotica. It is all in the eye of the beholder. And the individual's eye is shaped by society. So why are some people shaped to think these images are erotic while others are shaped to think that these images are deviant (pornographic)? Stoltenberg, John. Refusing to be a Man. Portland, Oregon: Breitenbush Books Inc., 1989, pp. 123-136. This excerpt confronts and combines pornography with a variety of other aspects including freedom, male supremacy, homophobia, men as well as freedom and equality. Stoltenberg is not in agreement with pornography and all the violence that goes with it. Stoltenberg, John. Refusing to be a Man. Portland, Oregon: Breitenbush Books Inc., 1989, pp. 146-159. This excerpt discusses the four causes of action that can be taken if an individual were to have a complaint regarding violation in pornography. It describes the instances when the ordinances will allow a person to obtain access to the local human-rights commission. This just gives a quick overview as to how people assess pornography. Society defines pornography in a certain manner and therefore it can claim what is and what can not be pornography. All individuals in society are considered including race and class, etc. Resources for Faculty Baird, Robert M. and Stuart E. Rosenbaum (editors). Pornography: Private Right or Public Menace. Buffalo, New York: Prometheus Books, 1975. This book covers the spectrum of controversy about Pornography: conflicting commission reports; feminist concerns about pornography; concerns of those opposed to censorship and/or committed to freedom of speech; religious perspectives. They all tie nicely together and with a little knowledge from each section, a well-rounded idea will be provided about the issue of pornography. Davis, Murray. Smut, Erotic Reality/Obscene Ideology. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983. This is a book on the study of sexual behavior in relation to sexual experience. Pornography is used as the remain objective resource for the study. He examines "soft core" pornography using the sexual "experience" rather than "hard core" pornography which focuses on the sexual "behavior." Gubar, Susan and Joan Hoff (editors). For Adult Users Only: The Dilemma of Violent Pornography. Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1989. This defines pornography in a number of ways to determine its relationship to violence against women. The first half of the book focuses on pornography in contemporary society while the second half focuses on resolving some of these divisions. Hawkins, Gordon and F.E. Zimring. Pornography in a Free Society. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988. This book examines the relationship of pornography and the public law in Western democracy. lt also provides perspectives on problems that have taken on meaning since the increased availability of sexually explicit material in the 1960's and 70's such as pornography and status of women; policies towards children; and on social control of pornography without the use of censorship. Kimmel, Michael S. (editor). Men Confront Pornography. New York: Crown Publishers, Inc., 1990. This book views pornography from a male's perspective. It confronts the issue of pornography in men's lives. It delves further into men's perception about their sexuality, women's sexuality, and about relations between men and women. Williams, Linda. Hard Core, Power, Pleasure and the "Frenzy of the Visible." Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989, pp. 184- 228. The chapter entitled "Power, Pleasure and Perversion" expands on certain movies that target the woman or women as the victim(s) of either men or other women. It focuses on violent pornography such as S/M. Lesson Plans Sociological Theory and Methods Donnerstein and Linz, "Mass-Media Sexual Violence and Male Viewers," pp. 198-215. (or) Norris, "Social Influence Effects on Responses to Sexually Explicit Material Containing Violence," pp. 67-76. Deviance Nein, "Not a Love Story" (movie optional). Steinem, "Erotica and Pornography: A Clear and Present Difference." Gender Inequality Scully and Marolla, "Convicted Rapists Describe the Rewards of Rape," pp. 44- 61 (Henslin anthology). Dworkin, Pornography: Men Possessing Women, pp. 199-202. Socialization Thorne and Luria, "Sexuality and Gender in Children's Daily Worlds," pp. 133-144 (Henslin anthology). Rush, "Child Pornography." Hevener, "College Students' Attitudes Towards Censorship of Sexual Explicitness," pp. 167-172. Social Movements Brownmiller, "Excerpt from Against Our Will: Men, Women and Rape." INCORPORATING THE ISSUE OF PORNOGRAPHY INTO A SOCIOLOGY COURSE ON MASS MEDIA AND POPULAR CULTURE Jennifer C. Sayles Course Overview "Sociology of Mass Media and Popular Culture" is a sociology course in which the primary goal is to improve students' "understanding of and ability to analyze popular culture and mass media of communications" (Spring 1993 course outline, Emmons, p. 2). Students are also urged to consider their own use of media, how they may be influenced by popular culture, how they position themselves on the social issues involved, and what they might do about these issues, both individually and collectively. Additional objectives include helping students further their understanding of and ability to utilize sociological theories, methods, and concepts. Finally, this course provides students with the opportunity to practice developing and expressing their thoughts and their use of language, both spoken and written (Spring 1993 course outline, Emmons, p. 2). The intent of this course is to explore the nature of both communications/mass media and popular culture. At Gettysburg College, "Sociology of Mass Media and Popular Culture" is taught from an "active" perspective, as opposed to a lecture format. This teaching method refers to the variety of ways in which the material is presented. Videos, guest speakers, music listening sessions, and class discussions are examples of the teaching devices utilized in this course. Issues concerning pornography can be effectively integrated into a course in which active participation is encouraged. For example, students may view sexually explicit materials and then analyze their content in a discussion. In this way, students can attain an understanding of pornography's role in mass media and popular culture. The topic of popular culture brings about discussions pertaining to advertising and the images which are portrayed in the advertisements. The implications of images in news broadcasts are also considered. The visual nature of pornography permits it to be easily connected with aspects of the course pertaining to media images. Students also listen to popular music (rap, punk, progressive, etc.) and contemplate how the different messages shape culture. The messages may be nostalgic, they may express concern for the environment, or they may be political messages. Finally, aspects of counterculture are also examined, such as popular music with a seemingly rebellious content. Popular music is applicable to pornography because many popular songs contain suggestive or explicit lyrics. Incorporating Material on Pornography The purpose of this resource guide is to promote teaching about violence against women. Violence against women is an issue of utmost importance, one that is necessary for both men and women to understand. Many people find pornography to be morally offensive. But is there any relationship between pornography and violence against women? If a relationship does exist, does pornography promote violence, or is it an actual form of violence? By connecting pornography with mass media and popular culture, this resource guide intends to increase students' awareness of the specific implications of pornography as it relates to women, as well as all forms of violence against women. The issue of pornography is directly related to this course, particularly to its mass media aspect, because the media display various forms of pornographic materials. There are several ways of integrating this issue into a course on mass media and popular culture. First, it is important to know how and to what extent different materials are distributed through the media. How do they become printed or aired? Pornography and other sexually explicit materials are also widely distributed. They are displayed through almost all media, whether it be through television, books, magazines, films, etc. This course also encourages students to ponder the question of who controls the media. According to Michael Real's theory of mass mediated culture, the elite control the media and use it as a tool to promote capitalism. Such is the case with pornography. Hugh Hefner is a wealthy and powerful man who makes millions of dollars by selling Playboy, a magazine filled with pictures of nude women. It is the people with large amounts of money and high status who have the power to manipulate and mold images of women as they wish. The rest of society ignorantly accepts the images with which it is provided. Censorship is another issue that is discussed in this course. Regarding pornographic materials, some believe that they should be restricted or even banned in certain places or for certain audiences (i.e., children). Others maintain that censoring pornography infringes upon a person's right to freedom of expression (for those who make it) as well as one's right to view pornographic materials. As pornography is largely an issue which affects women, there are many feminists who favor the censorship of pornography, as well as those who object to it. It is believed that the media have certain effects on how we perceive specific groups in society. For example, the media are often blamed for the corruption of youth. There is also the question of whether or not viewing pornography influences people's attitudes and behavior towards women. In other words, to what extent do media images influence individuals? There are several sociological theories which may be applied to viewing pornography, such as the modeling theory and the meaning theory. Under the "Images and Ideologies" section of the syllabus, a section titled "Erotica vs. Pornography" could be added. This has proven to be a great debate, as there are those who make the distinction between erotica and pornography and those who do not (porn is porn). Those who argue that there is a distinction point out that erotica is compassionate, sensual love-making between two consenting individuals. Pornography, on the other hand, tends to be more aggressive and violent in nature. In addition, there is a definite relationship of power and authority, with one person taking on the superordinate role while the other assumes the subordinate role. Drawing the issue of pornography vs. erotica into popular culture, many claim that pornography is more closely related to popular culture than is erotica because pornography tends to lack sophistication. It is considered low brow and low status. Erotica, on the other hand, is regarded as expressive and arty, and because it is often found to be acceptable to people of higher status, it is less likely to be categorized under popular culture. It is important for students to consider the pornography vs. erotica debate and draw personal conclusions from it. Furthermore, the debate demonstrates how different people can interpret the same media image in various ways. The variety of interpretations of sexually explicit materials contributes to the way in which people shape their attitudes into being either supportive of pornography or against pornography. Finally, under the "Popular Music" section of the syllabus, one could give some consideration to the nature of music videos. A large portion of music videos contain various degrees of pornographic elements and/or sexually explicit materials. Some videos even show scenes which exhibit direct violence towards women. In order to achieve a better understanding of the relationship between pornography and music videos, you might ask the students: "Based on the content of music videos, what kinds of limits (in regards to the degree of sexual explicitness and violence) do you think that MTV has set up as guidelines in determining which videos will and will not be aired?" or "Can you think of any music videos that you have seen recently that seemed to be particularly sexually explicit or violent?" or "In videos that do seem to be particularly sexually explicit or violent, do the scenes fit in with the nature of the song, the singer/group, or the song's lyrics?" Suggested Readings for Students Berger, Fred R. "Pornography, Sex, and Censorship." pp. 83-104 in Pornography and Censorship. David Copp and Susan Wendell (eds.). Buffalo, NY: Prometheus Books, 1983. This essay discusses both sides of the censorship issue on pornography. Donnerstein, Edward and Daniel Linz. "Mass-Media Sexual Violence and Male Viewers." pp. 198-215 in Changing Men. Michael S. Kimmel (ed.). Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, 1987. An examination of the research on aggressive pornography, nonpornographic media images of violence against women, and nonviolent pornography. Based upon evidence from previous research, Donnerstein and Linz find no "harm"-related effects toward women in sexually explicit materials. However, the evidence may support harmful effects from aggressive materials. Gracyk, Theodore A. "Pornography as Representation: Aesthetic Considerations." pp. 117-134 in Pornography: Private Right or Public Menace? Roben M. Baird and Stuart E. Rosenbaum (eds.). Buffalo, NY: Prometheus Books, 1991. Gracyk looks at pornography from an aesthetic perspective. He suggests that those who feel that pornography is morally objectionable because it degrades women focus more on finding criteria for "the pornographic attitude" and less on the proper definition of "pornography." (Reference to the civil rights law written by Andrea Dworkin and Catharine MacKinnon which makes pornography actionable as sex discrimination.) MacKinnon, Catharine. Feminism Unmodified: Discourses on Life and Law. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1987, pp. 198-205. MacKinnon expresses her opposition to pornography, maintaining that it degrades women. She also speaks about the civil rights law, which she wrote with Andrea Dworkin. Miller, Richard. "Violent Pornography: Mimetic Nihilism and the Eclipse of Differences." pp. 147-162 in For Adult Users Only: The Dilemma of Violent Pornography. Susan Gubar and Joan Hoff (eds.). Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1989. The implications of violent pornography as a form of entertainment and profit are discussed. National Coalition Against Censorship. Meese Commission Exposed. New York: National Coalition Against Censorship, 1986, pp. 42-44. Betty Friedan believes that censoring pornography is dangerous to the rights of men and women. Rather than eliminating pornography, which may or may not end violence against women and children, we should concentrate on eliminating violence itself. Winer, Lucy and Paula de Koenigsberg (dirs.). "Rate It X." New York: Interama, 1986. - videotape This video focuses on the creators of oppressive images, as well as the moral and financial support which they draw from consumers. Of course, it is difficult to distinguish those images that display oppression towards women from those which do not. For example, which is considered more of a vehicle for the objectification of women, a baker who specializes in bikini-clad female torso cakes or a video-maker who roams the streets of New York City accosting women and promising fame to those who will disrobe for him? The film also demonstrates that pornography and sexist imagery are created for the male spectator and concern male fantasies of control. The use of feminist intervention geared towards transforming certain cultural ideologies about women is also shown. Resources for Faculty Hawkins, Gordon and Franklin E. Kinuing. Pornography in a Free Society. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988, pp. 20-73. A good overview. Chapter two compares the variations in the definitions of pornography, obscenity and erotica as determined by the Johnson Commission, the Williams Committee, and the Meese Commission. Chapter three summarizes and analyzes the market and industry of pornography, including how it is produced and distributed. This information was gathered from reports composed by the Johnson Commission and the Meese Commission. Kappela, Susanne. The Pornography of Representation. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1986, pp. 35-48. A discussion of the concepts "pornography" and "erotica." Are these concepts interchangeable, or is there a distinct difference between them? Kappeler argues that the two concepts overlap substantially. Erotica is simply a moderate form of pornography. Linz, Daniel, Edward Donnerstein and Steven Penrod. "The Effects of Multiple Exposures to Filmed Violence against Women." Journal of Communication, 34, 3: 1984, pp. 130-147. In their study, Linz, Donnerstein, and Penrod found that male subjects perceived films to be less violent after the last day of five days of viewing as compared to the first day of viewing. They also found a tendency for the desensitization to the filmed violence against women to "spill over" into subjects' judgements of a female victim in another violent context. Matacin, Maia L. and Jerry M. Burger. "A Content Analysis of Sexual Themes in Playboy Cartoons." Sex Roles, 17, 3-4: 1987, pp. 179-186. A content analysis of the cartoons from all 1985 issues of Playboy found that women were more often the victims of sexual coercion, depicted as sexually naive and childlike, and shown with a more attractive body than were the men in the cartoons. Steinem, Gloria. "Erotica and Pornography: A Clear and Present Difference." pp. 51-55 in Pornography: Private Right or Public Menace? Robert M. Baird and Stuart E. Rosenbaum (eds.). Buffalo, NY: Prometheus Books, 1991. In this article originally published in Ms. magazine, November 1978, Steinem explains the differences between the concepts of "erotica" and "pornography." Williams, Linda. Hard Core: Power, Pleasure, and the "Frenzy of the Visible." Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989, pp. 120- 152. This chapter discusses hard core pornography, exploring the significance of its new, mainstream popularity and appeal to general audiences: Much emphasis is placed upon the iconography used in these films and their relation to narrative. Lesson Plans The following section of this resource guide provides some specific suggestions for incorporating issues on pornography into some of the course topics pertaining to mass media and popular culture. The appropriate readings are listed for students and faculty. A variety of both discussion questions and exercises for classroom use are also provided. Mass Media of Communications: From Understanding Mass Communication, DeFleur & Dennis (1991): 1) Chapter 4 - "Magazines" - reference to Playboy as "entertainment" at the bottom of page 127. Relevant Sources: Hawkins and Kimring (1988) - pp. 35-36 Matacin and Burger (1987) -As Matacin and Burger suggest, women are often depicted as childlike and sexually naive in Playboy cartoons. However, some people argue that the magazine contains some decent and informative articles. Have the students look through an issue of Playboy magazine.* Is the overall content of Playboy degrading or harmful to women? Why or why not? * WARNING: Under the Civil-Rights Antipornography Ordinance, any person who is forced to watch pornography at home, in a place of work or education, or in public is having their civil rights violated. -Have the class do a content analysis of various pornographic magazines.* Do the photographs in these magazines display any violence? Are they sexually explicit? Collect several pages (with photographs) from these magazines. Have several students individually arrange the pages in order from "most pornographic" to "least pornographic." Did students tend to arrange them in a similar order or differently? What does this indicate about pornography? * WARNING: Under the Civil-Rights Antipornography Ordinance, any person who is forced to watch pornography at home, in a place of work or education, or in public is having their civil rights violated. 2) Chapter 5 - "Films" - discussion of movie ratings and censorship on pp. 167 - 170. Relevant Sources: Donnerstein and Linz (1987) Hawkins and Kimring (1988) - pp. 32-35 Williams (1989) -What are some of the differences between films containing high levels of violence, films that are sexually explicit, and hard core pornographic films? How are they similar? -Discuss the common characteristics (music, props, types of characters, etc.) that are often found in hard core pornographic films. 3) Chapter 9 - "Economic Influences on the Media" - under "The Media as Businesses" (The Movies), p. 278: ...When T.V. was introduced, movie makers began to lose money. In order to try to make more money, they "turned to showing more violence and more explicit sex." Relevant Sources: Miller (1989) -To what degree is pornography a large money-making industry? -Do you think that pornography is produced more for profit or for entertainment? Why do you think this? 4) Chapter 10 - "Political Controls on the Media" - under "Moral Values: Obscenity and Pornography," pp. 301-303: Censorship. Relevant Sources: Berger (1983) Gracyk (1991) MacKinnon (1987) National Coalition Against Censorship (1986) Winer and de Koenigsberg (1986) - videotape -Censoring and restricting pornography takes away from some people's rights to freedom of expression (for those who produce and distribute pornography) and freedom of choice (for viewers of pornography). Are you or are you not in favor of censoring pornography? For what reasons? -What do you think about Dworkin's and MacKinnon's civil rights law? Would it work? Would you be interested in seeing it put into effect? Why or why not? -According to Betty Friedan (National Coalition Against Censorship), we should forget about eliminating pornography and concentrate on addressing more important issues. Do you or do you not agree with Friedan's view that pornography is not one of the bigger issues at this time? Should we concentrate on other issues instead? -View and discuss the video, "Rate It X." According to the film, how can we identify images of oppression towards women? Are these images fairly simple to identify, or are these images "hidden" in many places in society? Are women unconscious of or unaware of many of these images? Why is this the case, and what can be done to advise men and women of the oppressive images existing in society? 5) Chapter 17 - "Media Influences on Individuals: Limited Effects" Relevant Sources: Donnerstein and Linz (1987) -Do the results presented by Donnerstein and Linz fit into the Magic Bullet Theory (p. 524)? Why or why not? -Why might the army film studies (pp. 536-539) be a better comparison to Donnerstein's and Linz's research? 6) Chapter 18 - "Media Influences on Society and Culture: Powerful Effects" -Can the Modeling Theory (p. 568) and/or the Meaning Theory (p. 573) be applied to the use of pornographic materials? If so, how? Images and Ideologies - The Market, Culture, and Counterculture: 1) An analysis of the erotica/pornography controversy. Relevant Sources: Gracyk (1991) Kappler (1986) Steinem (1991) -After reading the articles, allow students to voice their opinions, ask questions, etc. -Have students try to come up with examples of both erotica and pornography (if they see a difference). -Are the differences in their examples found in the content of the material or in the ways in which the material is displayed? -Pop singer Madonna believes that erotica can be distinguished from pornography. In fact, she describes the photos in her recently published book "Sex" as erotic rather than pornographic. If it is possible for this book to be brought into class, let the students flip through the book and make their own judgment. You may wish to have the class compare the contents of this book with the contents of various other pornographic magazines. * -The class could also analyze sex scenes in various films, videos, primetime television programs, and soap operas. Which seem more erotic? Which seem more pornographic? Can you determine any difference at all? * * WARNING: Under the Civil-Rights Antipornography Ordinance, any person who is forced to watch pornography at home, in a place of work or education, or in public is having their civil rights violated. Popular Music: 1) "Gender Roles in Popular Music Videos: MTV's "Top 100 of All Time" - Joe Gow -You may want to lead a general and informal discussion of the content of music videos, perhaps asking the students about some of the previously mentioned questions. Or, you may decide to show some music videos in class to be analyzed by the students by using survey data to measure each video's degree of sexual explicitness and violence. You could, for example, show the same music videos as those used by Gow in his research. -What about explicit song lyrics? Does this topic relate to pornography? How?