#36 A Collection of Millions and You're More Beautiful With a Flat Head

From Washington we presented radio Smithsonian a program of music and conversation

from the Smithsonian Institution. Just how did human beings differ from less

animal. Humans have the ability to reason. The ability to perform

manual skills. The ability to learn. But one of the more intriguing

ways is the tendency of humans to alter their bodies to please each other.

I can't imagine a horse getting tattooed or a cow speeding into a tight corset.

At the Smithsonian Dr. Thomas good physical anthropologist

has made a life study of what he calls body modification.

Today Dr. Stuart talks about these modifications and the consequences.

But before we talk with Dr. Stuart Frederick M. Phillips talks with Dr. Richard Cowen.

The director of the National Museum of Natural History about his

experience as chief steward of one of the largest museum collections in the world.

Dr. Cowen if if the legendary man from Mars suddenly appeared here in

Washington and asked you to describe the National Museum of Natural

History What would you answer for any visitor whether he's

from Mars or wherever he may start from

the Natural History Museum that he encounters.

First of course is there is a building in a sense because that's what the sign out front says this

is a National Museum of Natural History. But inside. And the thing that people

think all over this country know best are the exhibits of Natural

History subjects. Indians animals of all

kinds. And so this is the thing that most people

get acquainted with and really feel related to.

We think of it as a museum of the people because in effect more than the

fact in fact the National Museum of Natural History all the other museums in the

Smithsonian complex are the people's museums

sense and we are largely supported by taxpayer dollars.

The innocence you are the steward for the American people have a vast collection of

natural objects.

That's right. Actually when the visitor comes through and again the Martian I'm not sure

if you are a Martian he'd go to the Air and Space Museum he might very well after he got through with the CIA

and the FBI and so forth.

But anybody coming through the museum sees we estimate something like

perhaps one percent or less than one percent of all of the what we call the national

collections capital in capital city because these are the natural history

objects that belong to the nation and that we're responsible by law. Actually

as well as by our interests in our training to take care of for the

sake of American science yes but.

For science internationally well how many specimens and objects are you taking

care of in the national collection if you don't insist on coming right down to the last one I

can say that is something in excess of fifty two million without

being too specific once again because it's almost impossible. How did the 50 million or

so objects break down.

Well you mean in terms of subject there in terms of subject matter OK.

The plant specimens for example runs something like three and a quarter

million. I think insect collections if I remember correctly are

17 one thousand million something like that. Anthropology collections are another

segment of this. There are a lot of fossils minerals meteorites

jams. Well naman if it's in the

area of natural history the history of man and man's relationships within the

environment of the documentary materials and that's the best way of thinking about

the documentary The materials are here. I mention of ALL ago that we are by

law the custom audience there is a law goes back to 1876 was just

interesting it's not. I'm only relating this just because of its interest is that it says that

collections made on federal funds with federal

funds come to the Smithsonian when the collectors are finished with

them. Now nobody ever goes around and checks up to be sure that everybody

adheres to this but it does give us a an obligation to care for

these things in perpetuity. As I said a moment ago

the use of scientists here and abroad we loan hundreds of thousands of collections each

year.

I think it was nineteen sixty eight I think we actually counted

something like 750000 or something like a fantastic number of collections

alone to research years in this country and over the world are the specimens in the national

collections in natural history from throughout the United States up from around the world everywhere

everywhere literally everywhere including space.

We have if you remember seen some of the publicity we have lunar

dust and lunar rocks being studied in our Department of Mineral

sciences to help unravel one of man's most perplexing riddles

the origin of the earth.

This is an era that's characterized by specialization and it's also

characterized by mass communication so that from the time a child is

perhaps seven years old or something or even before that he's bombarded by TV

and films tips and slides and learns to read books and magazines and go to the

movies and hear the radio right now in an era like this specialized

interests and a great deal of communication. Does a generalized all

purpose museum such as a natural history museum that we have here in Washington still

make sense or are we moving toward more specialized

museums of botany and anthropology and that kind of thing.

Ok to answer that I'm going to have to go back for a moment in your

remarks. As you started to ask this question you spoke of this is an age of

specialization believe it or not I'm getting ready to answer the question. This is

an age of specialization I'll agree. At the same time the specialists are being required to be

generalists in the sense that we are certainly coming into the period in this country and I think

internationally where scientists are working together

as teams each one contributing a special day. You see but

at the same time to a general objective now the same thing I think is what's happening

in museums we're not coming to more specific museums but we are coming to museums

that tend to integrate information in new ways.

Let me give you an example for just what we have in the museum now. You go

into a hall that talks about the peoples of Asia and Africa you go into another

halls North American Indians another whole people of the Pacific. OK that's

interesting and we all enjoy having people millions of people here come and study

these in and get a lot out of it no question about that. But the new approach

unquestionably is going to be looked to be along the lines of taking a look at

subject areas.

How has man solved particular environmental problems. Defense for example.

The blowgun have for example has been has emerged

from cultures in Southeast Asia the Central Pacific northern South America and Central

Africa. Not because they were transported because man had similar problems to

defend themselves to get food and had materials at hand. So the human animal took the

materials at hand with a similar problem and solved it in much the same way that all recognisable blowguns

but continents apart. So in the future we might look at questions

in a hall in the exhibit hall and say how does man how did man meet this problem.

And then the exhibits help the visitor answer that question.

What advantage is there to doing that in a museum setting. Because other than in

through Motion Pictures and Television.

Oh I think I think the advantages of having a solid three dimensional objects

directly in front of you and of course we are moving into the era of a lot of touch

exhibits too we are trying now to develop the wherewithal

to establish what we call the Discovery Room which will be boxes of objects

shells rocks even freeze dried birds

anything and everything of Natural History interest that young people as well as older

young people. People are still learning can feel an

employee not only their eyes and their ears. But but their hands

as well in this learning experience. So I think there are great

advantages to this kind of participation.

The sense of the real world a sense of reality right a sense of of human

experience. Exactly. Rather than that the two dimensional passive spectator

experience I think the greatest difference in the result is what I've

sometimes phrased it this way.

The person now going back home having visited the Natural History Museum is able to

say I saw the biggest diamond I saw the biggest elephant I saw the biggest oil there any

place in the world. And that's fine their body is convinced then that he's been to the

Museum of Natural History. But you know to me it be terribly exciting if you go home

and say I brought home with me to Kirkuk or to New York

City or to San Francisco or anyplace else. And I do yeah I brought home with me an

idea the idea that man is is a creature that solves problems

and has been doing this for the last hundred thousand years or something like that you know he could This gives him

something then to build from his daily experience to build on. You don't build on the

fact that you've seen the biggest elephant. I'm not knocking our exhibits because these are

very interesting I'm trying to look forward to the future in response to your question. What do people come

to see at the National Museum of Natural History. That's the hardest thing

in the world to answer.

There is a class of people that come because they feel that they ought to.

There are many people who come from the surrounding area school children especially who come

to learn about a particular subject perhaps they're studying home as

my children are Africa and in the geography at school and so they come to see

things related to Africa in the museum. Or maybe they're studying birds or

maybe they're studying sea life. And these are areas within the museum that they

can flesh out their academic.

Training that they get out of the textbooks and so many people come to see specific things the hope.

Yes. Oh yeah he was jealous under a huge bang. More people ask for specific things

like that if they ask at all. They asked Where's the Hope Diamond

and where is the big elephant. Where's the tiger now it's a new addition to the list of

specials. This is the largest museum of its kind in the world.

Yes. Without getting too technical I think there are

probably other certainly some very fine exhibits and perhaps as large in terms of

exhibits you look exhibits only at the American Museum of Natural History. If you take it in

terms of its exhibits functions and its research functions its educational functions and

its curatorial is caretaking functions and by its greatest complex natural history complex

in the world yes.

Dr. Kahn is the director of the National Museum of Natural History.

Now we discussed with Dr. Stuart how and why people change their bodies. Doctors do

it is a unique role in the whole of physical anthropology depicting the liver

modifications body modifications inflicted on human

bodies. This I suppose is to show what you cannot display

in skeletons.

Well since that is not altogether true because some of

these modifications do go through and impress themselves on the bones as for

instance the binding of the head causes the skull to be

misshapen and we do have an accompanying exhibit of

modifications of the skull skull defamation.

And we have another one showing the tooth modification of the

filing and the inlaying. But we had the opportunity to pull them all

together in this mural. And I had in mind there that

the whole hall exhibits a single type of

material and that is human bones. And I wanted to

remind the viewer constantly that these were once living people

and that as far as polished bald we would show in as background

material. People in the flesh.

And so this mirror all it took advantage of that and shows many of the body

modifications as they would appear in life and as you say some of them

would not appear in the bones.

Could you describe a little bit what you mean by body modifications and give me some examples.

Well the body modification or many sorts

we're familiar of course in modern life with what

people do to their bodies you know you can pluck the eyebrow

is you can either allow the fingernails to grow long

and pointed or cut them off short this is a form of body modification. In the

Victorian period the ladies wore tight corsets constricted their

waists. This left a certain deformity on the rib cage.

In China in ancient times until recently many

of the ladies bound the feet and they could hardly walk on

they had to have special shoes made so they could walk.

I didn't realize until I looked at that the picture of the bound feet in the oral

but I thought it just made the seat smaller but it doesn't the toes actually are a wonder.

Yes and I can certainly tell him that I had it almost as if this is the value of the mural

that did it shows the details. Another type of

modification that had long intrigued me. I had seen back in

1987 when I spent a summer up in Bering Sea among the Eskimos

the Eskimos on Novak Island punch holes or through

their lower lip.

And in there they all put a little

button of ivory and to the exteriors part they will hang strings of

beads. So these are known as lip plugs and of course

the males when they don't have the plug and tempted you tobacco the juice

trickles out comes this very day the disgusting looking.

Then of course I imagine the pointing of the teeth filing the inlay.

This is still going on in parts of the Americas but it was a prehistoric culture

custom in America too. There is also the stretching the yellow

the puncture the nose the nasal septum.

The stretching of the lips with lip plugs and the

scarification is common in Africa. The negroes

are prone to keel Lloyds wherever they have a cut

scar that forms is raised and so by directing this the

cuts on the body they can make patterns come out very intricate patterns

all over their their bodies. So these are these are some of the more

pronounced modifications that are shown in this mural.

What do you feel is the idea behind all the origin of some of these modifications for instance the

stretched lips.

Well this is a very strange thing to account for.

I I don't know why anyone would attempt to do this in the

first place must be terribly uncomfortable. And according to our

lights it's not attractive.

But do they feel do the men do it. Do the women to make them unattractive to other

males or do they feel do you think they really felt that this was attractive and desirable.

Well the situation varies with each of these customs.

I remember reading in one ethnographic report about.

Head binding in Melanesia and some of the children

had been removed from the area where they did this had by then and

taken by the missionaries away from that area and so they didn't have their heads bowed

and they were miserable.

They felt that they were strange looking and they had

missed their opportunity this can only be done when you're a child.

In some places these lot of the kids I suppose have real meaning for

instance with the Eskimo gals who have lines put on them when they read.

Oh yeah there's some of the some of those is symbolic.

We know that some of the head flattening was

to identify members of the tribe

tribe at the mouth of the Columbia River. Their practice was a true flat

head type of head deformity.

It was done in the cradle board and the head was put into a sort of a

vise that really crushed it down. And if they

survived they really had a flat head. But they had

slaves and they never allowed their slaves to the former head. In this

sense as Washington Irving said this became the sign of freedom.

And you could well say what price freedom do you think that this possibly had any did any

bright cause any brain damage.

I think it may have caused some temporary brain damage they

describe this as causing the eye is devolved out and

blood to run from the nose and ears its own and

I suspect quite a few of them died in the process.

What it did tattooing originate.

Well we of course don't know because this is something involving

the soft parts which do not last and so we don't

recover them from ancient times with a few exceptions and that would be in

mummies.

We have an exhibit near this mural in the case of mummies

forearm of a mummy from Peru which is fully

tattooed and I've had an artist fill out the

design and in the coming sketch to show what it

looked like. That goes back to prehistoric times in Peru

and we don't know how much earlier.

There one thing that I have learned about tattooing

that I hadn't known.

And that is that probably the Western peoples that has your opinions picked it up from the

Orient through their sailors the sailors went there in the early sanding ships

and saw the custom got tattooed and brought the custom back to the west.

It seems to be more prevalent amongst naval people. Yes it is very common among

others that is the reason for this as a logical reason. But this still is continuing very much

today.

You know the Bene revival today in

some of the communes in the West I understand and it's being done very

frequently now when there is bone involvement

in Peru you were talking about some of the skulls that you have that have quite a few holes in the

US in the head. Why was this done.

Well we can only surmise from what the evidence

presented in the specimens we can see clearly that they did it in

cases of fracture. That is clear in the

other cases where there are no signs of fracture. We would have to assume it might

be for letting the evil spirits out in cases of headache or

epilepsy or insanity. One of the cases that we

show.

Is unfortunately only a copy because the original specimen is in the

British Museum in London. What it showed was seven heel holes

in one skull.

I doubt whether any more than two have been made at a single

operation. Probably only one in an operation.

But this seems to indicate that an individual could

survive many such operations without

being done in by.

Do you think this is one of the early examples of migraine headaches.

From the way the holes are distributed it was migrating had it

in the skin and defamation.

Do you feel that most of these were really for for adornment.

Well OK Lloyds of the UK Lloyds. Yeah. Yes.

This is done in and I and I had a steady

pattern and very ingenious patterns at times

and they do it with actually buttoning the skin.

No they would cut

this according to the design they wanted to create. And then apparently rub

something dirty or something into the wound which would keep it

open while the scar tissue was forming it would enhance the amount

of scarring to a certain extent

peoples in the Pacific practice this custom. They combine

color tattooing with raised patterns.

And I think theirs is the most elaborate next to them

perhaps is the Japanese who practice only the color

that doing but had a lab or an almost full body patterns

with dragons chrysanthemums and flowers and people

even portraits I suppose you have no way of telling how much infection will get

from this.

It hasn't been retained in the bones as I know.

No it would not spread to the ball and and

I imagine by that time that where we get pictures of

such people the art had reached the stage where they could avoid

infection.

They must have learned enough to be careful in doing it not to

transmit infection.

Is that more research going on south doing on

skeletons and some of the definition of skeletons.

Well I am very much interested and the

distribution of refining and of

head flattening and tooth mutilation these are the primary ones

that we see and I am at the moment

working on a purported new

tree finding from Peru which

Thora T and Peru calls prophylactic.

He means by this that it was carried out in childhood has

prevented far head extend and later

life. This is such a practice is

known from the Pacific where they cut holes in the child's

head and make sure they didn't have headaches and adult life

and I can't quite believe that that is the explanation of the condition

we see in Peru because the area involved is on the

very most prominent part of the back of the head. And all

of these heads are deformed or flattened on the back and I

think that may be what we're seeing is a result of this pressure on the back of the head.

And there's been in the grosses of the bone resulting from the pressure. And it

simulates how he'll treat fine. That's what

I'm setting out to try to demonstrate.

It's as if people in Peru have more headaches.

Well in ancient times of course this is this was a custom that the Spaniards

made the Indian to give up its own as they invaded Peru.

It seems to me what people just aren't satisfied with the way they're put together.

Well this brings up a point which I think we should consider

and that is creating this mural. I

was careful not to create the impression that these

are bizarre customs known only to primitive peoples

that we are just as likely to do this and that's why right down in front I have this white

man having himself tattooed. I could have put it on the

Victorian lady with a tight corset I couldn't find a place for her on it.

And we also show a

padre up in one corner who has a head shaven atonce or

and he is talking to a couple of the Iroquois Indians who have the sides of their heads

shaved leaving a central Roach and these are

all body modifications. But this is something that's a worldwide

phenomenon. And I imagine all peoples have invented something along those

lines. So. It's not a mark of

inferiority by any means.

Dr Stuart is a senior physical anthropologist here at the Smithsonian

radio Smithsonian is presented weekly at this time produced by Dan McKeever of the Office of

Public Affairs Frederick M. Phillips director.

This is Cynthia.

I am.

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This is the national educational radio network.