This file was prepared for electronic distribution by the inforM staff. Questions or comments should be directed to inform-editor@umail.umd.edu. MILESTONES: THE WOMEN'S BUREAU CELEBRATES 70 YEARS OF WOMEN'S LABOR HISTORY U.S. Department of Labor Elizabeth Dole, Secretary Women's Bureau Jean M. Curtis, Acting Director 1990 A MESSAGE FROM THE SECRETARY OF LABOR Only 7 years after the Department of Labor was established in 1913, the Women's Bureau was created by Congress and made an integral part of the Department. Since that time, the Bureau has directed both its commitment and its resources toward meeting the diverse needs of the rapidly growing female labor force--a force that is now comprised of 56 million women who account for 45 percent of the American work force. Women workers have helped and will continue to contribute immensely to the health of our Nation's economy. I salute our Women's Bureau and applaud its many contributions that have been vital in fulfilling the Department's responsibilities to our Nation's workers. The Bureau has been on the leading edge as it has addressed the changing nature of work and the composition of America's work force. Projections tell us that by the year 2000, the work force will include increasing numbers of women and minorities. Economic demands of the future will require workers who are skilled and productive and employers who have the ability to utilize the talents of all available human resources without distinction of gender, race or ethnic origin. In addition, as more mothers enter the work force, balancing work and family responsibilities is becoming a critical consideration for both employers and employees. Through its Work and Family Clearinghouse, the Women's Bureau has established a modern data base complete with "how-to" information about establishing a wide variety of child care programs including cafeteria-style benefits plans and tax-credits, updated information about liability insurance and community resources. As the Bureau celebrates its 70th year milestone we commend its continued devotion to the mission of advocating on behalf of women's employment issues in the 90's and on to the 21st century. Elizabeth Dole Forward We are pleased to share the life story of the Women's Bureau as we observe our 70th anniversary. Many milestones have been reached and they are recorded in this commemorative publication. We invite you to revisit our seven decades of service to working women as the highlights unfold throughout these pages. There are many striking differences yet some impressive similarities among the women who have worked or sought work during the Bureau's 70-year history. Seven times as many women are in the labor force today (56 million) as were there in 1920 (8.25 million). Still, women remain concentrated in certain occupations- -clerical work, for example. The Bureau's story, which also reflects the experience of women workers, is not one entirely of heartening news. Indeed, there have been disappointments along the way--disappointments because women still find obstacles in their path as they pursue certain careers or strive to reach top levels of management, for example. But the activities described in profiles of Bureau directors and the programs they guided translate into significant gains for women workers. Perhaps most important is that the Women's Bureau story is one of adapting to change, pursuing progress--and maintaining hope. The Bureau has great expectations for the future and will play an active role as advocate and catalyst to effect more positive change for women. Our ambitious programs now underway toward achieving this goal are described in the section on "Facing Challenges of the 1990's." As we work toward reaching new milestones in our eighth decade of history, we hope to write many new chapters of progress on behalf of women who work or want to work. We invite you to support us in our mission. Jean M. Curtis Acting Director, Women's Bureau CONTENTS A Message From Secretary of Labor Elizabeth Dole Foreword by Women's Bureau Acting Director Jean M. Curtis The Women's Bureau: What It Is, What It Does Women Workers Then and Now: Statistical Contrasts Profiles and Progress: Sketches of Women's Bureau Directors, Programs, and Accomplishments Mary Anderson, 1920-1944 Frieda S. Miller, 1944-1953 Alice K. Leopold, 1953-1961 Esther Peterson, 1961-1964 Mary Dublin Keyserling, 1964-1969 Elizabeth Duncan Koontz, 1969-1973 Carmen Rosa Maymi, 1973-1977 Alexis M. Herman, 1977-1981 Lenora Cole Alexander, 1981-1986 Shirley M. Dennis, 1986-1988 Jill Houghton Emery, 1988-1989 Facing Challenges of the 1990's Chronology of Women's Labor and Women's Bureau History: Selected Events From the Turn of the Century to the Present "Day the same as night, night the same as day, And all I do is sew and sew and sew. May God help me and my love come soon, That I may leave this work and go." --Yiddish folk song sung in the sweatshops of New York City, early 1900's. WOMEN WORKERS THEN AND NOW: STATISTICAL CONTRASTS These few statistics sketch a striking contrast in profiles between the women who worked in 1920 and today's working women. When the Women's Bureau was established, the working woman was most likely to be single and in her twenties, and she generally went to work out of expediency to help her family in times of economic hardship. She did not expect to work for many years nor to acquire the same skills, seniority, or wages as a working man. She was most likely to be found in so-called "women's jobs," such as factory or other operative jobs, clerical, private household or agricultural work-- all requiring little education and sill. Only one out of five of her contemporaries probably graduated from high school. In 1920 the female labor force totaled about 8.25 million, of which approximately one-third worked in factories. Women represented less than 20 percent of the total U.S. labor force. Less than one- fourth of all women between the ages of 20 and 64 were in paid employment, and only 18 percent of women ages 35 to 64 were workers. Today, 56 million women workers make up 45 percent of the Nation's civilian work force. While the total labor force grew 26.5 percent between 1976 and 1988, the number of women in the labor force increased 40.4 percent. The majority of women (57 percent) are now employed or seeking paid employment. About 7 of every 10 women ages 18 to 64 are working, and women between the ages of 25 and 54 (74 percent) are most likely to be working. The typical woman worker today, age 36, is married and is a partner in a dual-earner marriage, or she has been at some time in her adult life. She is a high school graduate with some college or post-secondary training--23 percent of all women workers now hold college degrees. She is most likely to be working in a clerical job, nursing, teaching below the college level, or in retail sales- -all relatively low paying occupations. But women have increased their participation in nontraditional areas, significantly in management and administration (40 percent female in 1989), as well as in the professions, police protection, and skilled trades. Women are also venturing into sole proprietorships as entrepreneurs--some 4.1 million by 1986. Today, some women can be found in all of the 514 individual occupations identified in the 1980 census. MARY ANDERSON appointed by President Woodrow Wilson, served 1920-1944 The first "up from the ranks" labor woman to head an executive department of the Federal Government, Mary Anderson led the Bureau for nearly 25 years, continuing efforts begun in her youth to win better wages, hours and working conditions for women. She served five presidents and, more important, the ranks of women workers swelled from 8.25 million in the year she assumed her position to some 19.61 million by 1945. An immigrant from Sweden, she arrived in the U.S. in 1889 at the age of 16 and took her first job as a dishwasher in a Michigan lumberjack boarding house for $1.50 per week. Moving and changing jobs, seeking better pay and conditions, she eventually became a skilled shoe worker earning $14 a week. She was the first worker at her plant to join a union and eventually became president of the Shoe Stitchers Local 94 of the International Boot and Shoe Workers Union. After 18 years in the shoe trade, Mary Anderson spent 8 years travelling across the country organizing women in the trades into unions for the Women's Trade Union League (WTUL). While attending the Versailles Peace Conference as a WTUL representative, she drew President Wilson's attention to the need for a clause in the International Labor Organization's constitution that would give women the right to participate in its work. Later, she became the first woman to do so. At the outbreak of World War I, Miss Anderson was appointed assistant director and eventually director of the newly formed temporary agency in the War Department, Woman-in-Industry Services (WIS), established to "insure the effective employment of women while conserving their health and welfare." In July of 1918, WIS was transferred to the Department of Labor. In 1920, responding to decades of lobbying by women's organization, Congress gave WIS permanent peacetime status as an agency of the Department of Labor, to be known as the Women's Bureau. Under her directorship, the Bureau investigated and reported on working women, their environments, conditions and needs, setting standards eventually incorporated into labor laws at the State, and finally, Federal level. She was largely responsible for the inclusion of women in the Federal Wage and Hour Law of 1938 (currently known as the Fair Labor Standards Act). Mary Anderson combatted exploitation of women in all forms, demonstrating an "admirable obstinacy" which has inspired Bureau staff ever since. Having witnessed the slippage in ground gained by women workers after the first World War, she fought for and succeeded in winning more skills training, wider job opportunities, and better pay and work conditions for women who responded in unprecedented numbers to the call for workers in World War II. Before retiring in 1944, she wrote and spoke extensively on the need to plan for reconversion of wartime women workers into peacetime contributors to the national economy. She had no illusions about the difficulties women would continue to face, writing in 1944: "Calm recital of facts and figures will scarcely allay rising fear in some quarters that women will take jobs from returning soldiers. Nor will statistical statements prevent unjust and unfounded discrimination against women workers. Facing the special problems of women and formulating specific solutions must be the line of action. Otherwise, in the transition period of sudden demobilization of both military and industrial forces, with large numbers of jobless persons competing for work, women will be the victims of catch-as-catch-can situation. Another complication looms as a result of women's migration in the past two years from less to more essential jobs, from civilian to war industries: Many women, having burned their occupational bridges behind them, may try in vain to go back to their former fields unless given special assistance....Full employment of our productive resources...is essential to save the country from a worse depression than the one that began in 1929...full employment means women as well as men....To evaluate women's services on a cheaper basis than men's or to permit women to compete with men as workers on lower wage levels is neither sound nor just. I prefer to state the equal pay policy...in terms advocated by the women's Bureau from its beginning--that wage rates should be based on occupation and not on sex." (The Postwar Role of American Women," American Economic Review Supplement, Vol. XXXIV, No. 1, March 1944). After her retirement, "the dean of Federal women," continued to give the Women's Bureau valued guidance and to promote better conditions for working women by lecturing, writing, and testifying before Congress and international bodies on their behalf. She also served as Chairman of the National Committee on Equal Pay. But Mary Anderson left a legacy to all workers. In 1962, at the age of 90 and shortly before her death, she was honored with the Department of Labor's "Award of Merit" in recognition of her significant contribution toward furthering the work of the Department to "foster, promote, and develop the welfare of the wage earners in the United States." Perhaps for this champion of workers and women an even more meaningful reward was living to see passage of the 1963 Equal Pay Act shortly before her death in 1961. FRIEDA S. MILLER appointed by President Harry S. Truman, served 1944-1953 When Mary Anderson prepared to retire, she said she would not have been willing to do so without the assurance that "the right kind of woman" would succeed her. The person was found, Frieda S. Miller, whom Miss Anderson described as "ideal for the job." Born in Wisconsin, Miss Miller earned a bachelor's degree at Milwaukee Downer College/Wisconsin and pursued four years of graduate study in economics, sociology, political science, and law at the University of Chicago. She then joined the newly established department of social economy at Bryn Mawr College as a research assistant and became secretary of the Philadelphia Women's Trade Union League, holding the position through the post-World War I period. This brought her into close contact with the American labor movement and women workers in particular. She was active in the Worker's Education Bureau of America, serving on its executive board until 1924. Frieda Miller traveled as a delegate to the 1923 International Congress of Working Women in Vienna. She spent a year in Europe studying labor conditions in England, Germany, and Austria. On her return in 1924, she put these experiences to work as a factory inspector for the Joint Board of Sanitary Control of the women's garment industry in New York, gathering and compiling statistics on conditions in the industry. She joined the staff of the New York City Welfare Council in 1927, followed by an appointment as director of the Division of Women in Industry and Minimum Wage of the New York State Labor Department, where she helped strengthen laws affecting the hours, wages, and working conditions of women. Appointed Industrial Commissioner of New York State in 1938, she replaced Frances Perkins who left the post to become the first woman cabinet member as Secretary of Labor under President Franklin D. Roosevelt. In 1943, she went abroad as a special assistant to Ambassador to England, John G. Winant, building upon international experience gained at Pan-American and International Labor Conferences during the previous decade. As Director of the Women's Bureau, she united her experiences and capabilities to continue the work begun by Miss Anderson, focusing upon postwar employment prospects for American women. Commenting on the immediate postwar period some 20 years later, she said, "The arresting fact about the employment picture for women was not the exodus of those who left the labor market after the war...but rather the continuation in gainful employment of the millions whose service were needed by the economy, and who, in turn, depended upon their pay envelopes to cover living expenses." (Women's Bureau archives.) Child care and household employment became pressing issues for those who remained in the work force. "More than half of the present total of 18.5 million women workers are married. In about a fourth of the families where the husband is employed, the wife is also in the labor force. Five million women workers have children under 18. Four million women are heads of families. Under these circumstances, unless satisfactory arrangements can be made for the care of children by obtaining competent household help through child-care centers or in some other way, family life suffers and absenteeism among working mothers rises as they struggle with home responsibilities and emergencies...(but) conditions in domestic employment have for the most part been left to be determined by the individual decisions of housewives and women seeking work. This field of employment is, roughly speaking, at the stage of development where industries such as the needle trades were half a century ago," she wrote in 1952. ("Household Employment in the United States," International Labour Review, Vol. LXVI, No. 4, October 1952.) Frieda Miller also used her international contacts to share information and cooperate in the new initiatives of labor and women's organizations in Europe, the Philippines, and the Americas. These international efforts were given new impetus by the establishment of the United Nations Commission on the Status of Women in 1946. Miss Miller continued to seek new directions for American women workers and linkages with their counterparts abroad until her resignation in 1953. "Peacetime and wartime wages for women have a common denominator-- women earn less than men." --Elizabeth Christman, Women's Bureau staff member and National Women's Trade Union League organizer, 1942. ALICE K. LEOPOLD appointed by President Dwight D. Eisenhower, served 1953-1961 The third director of the Women's Bureau presided over what many look back upon as the doldrums in the history of the women's movement and of working women's issues in particular--the Fifties. But Alice K. Leopold's own background and the types of studies conducted during her directorship point to some steady, if unpublicized, progress and changes that would lead to new momentum in the decades ahead. Mrs. Leopold was the first married woman to hold the directorship. She had a background in retail management--as personnel director of two large department stores, Hutzler Brothers in Baltimore and B. Altman & Co. in New York--rather than in the industrial environment that characterized her predecessors. She had also held elective, not merely appointed, State government positions, gaining practical experience of the political and legislative processes from the inside, as Secretary of State for Connecticut and a member of the Connecticut legislature. All of these differences symbolized changes in the profile of the American women worker and suggested some new possibilities. Women had only gained the right to vote in 1920, when the Bureau was founded; now its director was a seasoned politician, with additional experience as secretary and project chairman of the Commission on Intergovernmental Relations; a manager, not just an employee; and a wife and mother, too. Mrs. Leopold's tenure also suggested that women, while ever in economic need of work, might also enjoy some psychological and intellectual rewards from their employment--just like men. She stated in a speech before a 1955 conference, "The Effective Use of Womanpower": "Not only can men and women work together side by side, but in this era, our Nation needs this kind of working partnership. The contributions of both men and women to the economy are necessary if our Nation is to maintain its high level of productivity, its great capacity to use new methods, its high standard of living and of good working conditions...people, whether men or women, work for the same reason. They work for their economic survival. Hopefully, they work at jobs that interest them, that give them a feeling of accomplishment." Mrs. Leopold received additional duties as special advisor to the Secretary of Labor on policies relating to employment standards for women, serving also as Chair of the Secretary's Advisory Committee on womanpower. During her directorship, the Women's Bureau documented changes in women's occupations, publicized employment and training opportunities in insurance, professional accounting, mathematics and statistics, legal work, physical and biological sciences, and technologies, and highlighted the phenomenon of increasing numbers of women in higher education by surveying the first jobs taken by new women graduates. Other studies reported on child care and maternity benefits for working women, and investigated the needs and provisions for "older" women workers. By the time Mrs. Leopold resigned in 1961, the stage was set for the next two decades which would see the most profound changes in American social and labor relationships since the Great Depression. ESTHER PETERSON appointed by President John F. Kennedy, served 1961-1964 Born in Utah, the descendant of pioneers and Swedish immigrants, Esther Peterson brought to the Women's Bureau a broad and deep background in education, labor, and women's affairs. Her varied experiences in the U.S. and abroad helped her fulfill the expanding responsibilities of the Women's Bureau in the early 1960's. With a bachelor's degree from Brigham Young University and a master's from Columbia University, Mrs. Peterson began a teaching career that spanned 12 years, including 6 years at the Windsor School, Boston, where she also taught garment workers at the YWCA. She then alternated teaching with her family responsibilities until 1939. During this period, she joined the National Consumers League, and remained an active member, serving on its board of directors for 15 years. Between 1939 and 1944, Mrs. Peterson served as assistant to the director of the Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America. By 1945, she had become the union's legislative representative in Washington, a post she held until moving overseas with her husband, a foreign service officer. While living in Sweden and in Belgium, Mrs. Peterson participated in several international conferences, establishing relationships with women leaders of the labor movement in Europe. She was one of the organizers and teachers of the first International School for Working Women held in LeBreviere, near Paris. Upon returning to the U.S. in 1957, Esther Peterson was named legislative representative of the Industrial Union Department of AFL-CIO, serving in this post until appointed Director of Women's Bureau in 1961. She commented shortly after assuming her new post, "We don't intend to slop back into any of the old notions about women's place. Their place is where they can do the most good..." Later that same year, the President also named her Assistant Secretary of Labor for Labor Standards. But the major event for Mrs. Peterson and the Bureau's constituency in 1961 was the establishment of the first President's Commission on the Status of Women, on which she served as executive vice chairman, under the chairmanship of Eleanor Roosevelt. Remembering the kind of thinking that led to the establishment of the Commission in an article she prepared more than two decades later, she wrote: "I believed we needed a definitive study in the United States to assess where women were, one that could identify inequalities systematically and examine possible solutions. We needed to burst the bonds of the narrow and anachronistic view that the Women's Bureau in the Department of Labor 'took care' of women as far as the Federal Government was concerned. I wanted to get consideration of women into the warp and woof of everything." ("The Kennedy Commission," Women in Washington: Advocates for Public Policy, Irene Tinker, ed., 1983.) The Commission's report, "American Women," presented in 1963 as "an invitation to action," became the blueprint for developing policies and programs to increase women's participation in all sectors of American life. While admitting that many of the proposals sound moderate today, Mrs. Peterson noted that some are not yet realized. Writing about the report's recommendations, she said, "Our goal was to begin to address women's problems in a comprehensive manner and to move toward changes based on practical considerations. Women were already working; we did not, despite some press reports, encourage them to do so, but we did insist that they had a right to work, to be treated fairly and to be offered reasonable compensation in order to help them meet their obligations to themselves, their families, their communities and the nation...we did not propose to restructure society. Rather, we strove to fit new opportunities into women's lives as they were. We were practicing the art of the possible." The Bureau continued with its own studies under Mrs. Peterson, including indepth reports on 1945 women college graduates 15 years later, new job horizons for the degree holders of the sixties, a geographical comparison of the status of women workers, and an important report on black women workers at the opening of the decade. During Mrs. Peterson's directorship, the Bureau achieved renewed momentum, broader support and higher visibility from its key position in coordinating women's issues at the Federal level--among government agencies, the White House, state and local government bodies and private groups. Its major legislative achievement was passage of the Equal Pay Act of 1963. MARY DUBLIN KEYSERLING appointed by President Lyndon B. Johnson, served 1964-1969 The Bureau's fifth director brought a hard-edged economist's eye to working women's issues, as well as experience in education and social welfare. A graduate of Barnard College in her native New York, Mary Dublin Keyserling completed her graduate study at the London School of Economics and Columbia University. She taught economics and statistics at Sarah Lawrence College from 1933 until 1938, when she began a 3-year term as general secretary of the National Consumers League. From 1941 until 1953, Mrs. Keyserling held high-level economic posts in Federal Government agencies, including that of director of the International Economic Anaylsis Division of the U.S. Department of Commerce. From 1953 until her appointment to head the Bureau in 1964, she was associate director of the Conference on Economic Progress, a national research organization concerned with the major problems of the American economy. She also worked as a consulting economist in private practice in association with her husband. Concurrent with her leadership at the Bureau, Mrs. Keyserling served as Executive Vice Chairman, Interdepartmental Committee on the Status of Women. during her directorship, Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1964, including Title VII, and Executive Order 11375 amending 11246 was issued in 1967. These continue to provide the bases for equal rights and equal opportunity for women of all races and ages. With the new legislation, the issue of protection versus discrimination against women workers came to a head, as it had in the early days of the women's labor movement, and would again in the future. Now, much of the protective legislation, so hard-won in previous decades, had to be reassessed in light of women's efforts to gain entry to a much broader range of jobs and occupations on an equal footing with men. The Bureau, ever responsive to the changing demands and needs of its constituency, led efforts to study the impact of the new legislation on women workers, reassess standing laws, and push for training opportunities which would allow women to follow their interests and fulfill their needs. The Bureau provided support and research to the Citizen's Advisory Council on the Status of Women. It also encouraged extension of commissions and studies beyond the national level. Mrs. Keyserling remembered in a 1981 article for the Barnard Alumnae Magazine, "During the years...I served as Director of the Women's Bureau of the U.S. Department of Labor, we worked hard and successfully to promote the appointment of Commissions on the Status of Women in every state, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico. Commissions were also formed in many cities and counties. They played a vital role in furthering equality of rights for women. They reviewed the state and local discriminatory statutes and many were repealed or altered. They encouraged private and public administrative action and did much to educate the public as to needed changes not only in law, but in custom, social practice, traditions and attitudes. Women's associations throughout the country were closely associated with this contribution to progress." Mary Keyserling helped the Department of Labor to set an example for other employers by establishing a demonstration child care center in a nearby building for children of low income Department employees. By the end of Mrs. Keyserling's tenure at the Women's Bureau, women's issues, minority women's issues and working women's issues were not only being discussed, but acted upon by a much larger cast of actors, most of whom had the power of law, number or access to public opinion which would make progress formerly only dreamed of, actually begin to happen in the years that followed. We are brought up to believe in democracy; we are told that if we have talent coupled with ambition, we will go far; those of us who accept this challenge are at a definite disadvantage. We are not told that undemocratic elements are at play and that we will be hindered in our efforts simply because we are women. Someone should have told me years ago that I'd have to be content with half a loaf...I wouldn't have tried so hard." --Cathryn Crosby, a Michigan secretary, in a letter to the Women's Bureau, 1956. ELIZABETH DUNCAN KOONTZ appointed by President Richard M. Nixon, served 1969-1973 Elizabeth Duncan Koontz had devoted most of her life to the field of education before becoming the first black woman to head the Bureau and the highest ranking black woman in the Administration. Born and raised in North Carolina, she earned education degrees at Livingstone College and Atlanta University, did additional graduate work at Columbia University and Indiana University, and pursued training in special education for the mentally retarded at North Carolina College. Mrs. Koontz' teaching career spanned 30 years (1938-1968), during which she served her home State's public schools, including a 3- year period of work with slow learners and disadvantaged children. In 1962, she served on the North Carolina Governor's Commission on the Status of Women, one of many commission and committee memberships in the service of education and social development. A life member of the National Education Association (NEA), she represented the NEA on a trip to Berlin in 1962 to observe the effect of the Berlin Wall on education. From 1965 to 1966 she served as president of NEA's largest department, the Association of Classroom Teachers, followed by the position of vice president, 1967-68. In 1968, Mrs. Koontz became the first black president of the NEA. During her term of service she initiated the Conference on Critical Issues in Education, which sought to eliminate discrimination against women, minorities, and the handicapped, and to destroy many myths and stereotypes plaguing the teaching profession. Her position with the NEA and contributions to numerous other associations and working commissions led her to participate in many national and international conferences around the world. Shortly after being appointed to direct the Women's Bureau, Mrs. Koontz was also named U.S. Delegate to the United Nations Commission on the Status of Women. In this capacity, she helped the Bureau share research and expertise with women abroad, especially in developing countries. Mrs. Koontz took full advantage of the previous year's legislation and the new visibility of women's issues to increase the activities of the Bureau and promote awareness of its programs and purposes among the general public. She also set out to support the fight for passage of the proposed Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) to the U.S. Constitution, given new impetus by the civil rights movement, a shift from the Bureau's traditional opposition to ERA in the past. In general, she sought to make the Bureau a more visible activist, employing a sophisticated public relations sense to gain attention for working women's issues generally and to the special issues of black and minority women in particular. The Bureau had a long history of including black women in its studies and standards policies, because black women had always worked in higher proportions than white women, usually in the most tedious and poorly-paid jobs, under the worst conditions. It took a black director and a new social awareness to bring the message home to the wider public. The first to admit that her own appointment was "tokenism," Mrs. Koontz consistently highlighted the serious problem of bringing historically disadvantaged minority women into the economic and political mainstream of the Nation. "Women hold the lowest paying jobs. Black women are at the very bottom." She led the Bureau in extensive outreach efforts to ensure that minority women knew of their newly confirmed rights and encouraged them to report problems to the newly formed Federal and State agencies charged with enforcement of civil and equal rights laws, through a program of Bureau sponsored minority consultation workshops. But Mrs. Koontz never failed to focus on the shared problems of all working women, regardless of race, or economic and social status, rooted in sex discrimination. "Our society has set aside roles for women--the pedestal approach. However, the fact is that many women can't stay home even if they want to ... women are learning that 'til death do us part' doesn't mean her death but her husband's death." Citing in 1972 the increasing figures on households headed by women (one out of nine) and especially among minority women (four out of nine), she called for federally subsidized, community- controlled child care centers to alleviate the number one problem for all working mothers. Major support for working women's rights was gained during Mrs. Koontz' directorship--the more explicit Department of Labor regulations requiring Federal Government contractors to take positive action in eradicating discrimination against women and minorities. The Comprehensive Employment and Training Act of 1973 sought to improve opportunities for disadvantaged workers; with later amendments it would open new doors for women. In 1972, the Secretary of Labor issued an order directing the Women's Bureau to coordinate all Department activities concerning women and designated the director as special counselor to the Secretary of Labor. CARMEN ROSA MAYMI appointed by President Richard M. Nixon, served 1973-1977 Born in Puerto Rico, Carmen Rosa Maymi was the Bureau's first Hispanic director and the highest ranking Hispanic woman in the Federal Government. A holder of an undergraduate degree in Spanish and master's in education from DePaul University, she also conducted graduate work at the University of Chicago Graduate School. She began her career as an employment counselor with the Migration Division of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico in Chicago, followed by a position as assistant director of an Urban Progress Center of the Chicago Committee on Urban Opportunity, and later as Urban Program Unit Director. Ms. Maymi entered Federal service in 1966 as a Community Services Specialist in the Office of Economic Opportunity, leaving to act as project director on Federal contracts dealing with model housing, service to Indian reservations and migrant programs. She returned to the Government to conduct a study on the "Economic Opportunity of Spanish Speaking People in the 1970's" for submission to the Committee on Economic Discrimination of the Domestic Council. The first Women's Bureau director to be appointed from within the ranks, she joined the Bureau as a consultant in 1972 and was subsequently named associate director for program development. At her swearing-in ceremonies, Ms. Maymi outlined the growing diversity of the female workforce she was appointed to serve: "I am acutely aware that the 33 million women workers in the United States include women of all races, ethnic backgrounds and religious persuasions, and I am pledged to serve them all. Of particular concern to me are the women who are hard to reach through the usual communication channels--women in isolated regions, women unable to break the language barrier, and women whose poverty has kept them out of the mainstream of economic life. For those, the Women's Bureau must find extraordinary means to provide its services." As director, she worked to develop the Bureau's growing linkages through cooperative programs with private organizations interested in promoting the full utilization and potential of women. In conjunction with the objectives of the International Women's Year-- 1975, she led the Bureau in increasing its international activities, travelling around the world to share its experiences. International programs included a joint study between the U.S. Department of Labor and the Ministry of Labor in Japan on the role and status of women in the labor force, as well as ongoing work for the UN Commission on the Status of Women, ILO, and other specialized bodies. Ms. Maymi represented the Bureau at human rights of women conferences and continued to make its resources available to other countries exploring the role of governmental and private organizations for women. On the national level, she designed programs and developed models to illustrate the legal, economic, and social status of women, directed research in traditional Bureau areas, including legal research on existing and proposed Federal and State laws affecting the status of women, and oversaw outreach programs designed to serve those special target groups such as women offenders, trade union women, youth, and minority women, often cooperating with voluntary organizations and commissions. The 1970's also saw increased awareness of the labor contributions and problems facing Hispanic women--due largely to their participation in the first successful efforts to organize farm workers in western agricultural enterprises and factory workers in the southwestern manufacturing plants. Many other Hispanic women were to be found in garment industry sweatshops. Writing for a publication of the National Council of La Raza in 1974, Ms. Maymi pointed out the unique barriers Hispanic women encountered in finding improved work opportunities: "Hampered by a language barrier and discriminated against because of their sex and their ethnic background, few have had the opportunity or incentive to acquire the necessary education. These women had a median level of 9.4 years of schooling in 1970. Only about two out of three women of Spanish origin, aged 25 years and over, could read and write in English in 1969. This situation is improving, however; among young women of Spanish origin, aged 10 to 24, the proportion . . . is now 9 out of every 10. This parallels the improvement in the educational attainment of young Spanish speaking people generally." Still, Ms. Maymi insisted, "the common denominator of discrimination against women is sex, not race. During her directorship, a new Department of Labor building was designed with space set aside for a child care center, self- supported by parental fees and governed by a parental board. This model center paved the way for child care centers at other Government and private sector offices. When I was appointed to the Board of Regents in Ohio. . .I was flattered and excited. I was the first and only woman on the Board--a real breakthrough for women on a truly powerful and influential Board. My first experience as the only woman was dismaying. I was treated with great politeness, deference, but I did feel I was not taken seriously. . . When a second woman was appointed, the change was dramatic. We were both considered individual members of the Board, not just women, and listened to accordingly." --Ohio Regent Mary Ellen Ludlum, mid 1970's. ALEXIS M. HERMAN appointed by President Jimmy Carter, served 1977-1981 The second black director, Alexis M. Herman, was the youngest woman to be appointed to the Bureau in its then 59-year history. During her directorship, the Bureau was elevated to the Office of the Secretary, facilitating its full participation in the Department of Labor's overall program planning and policymaking. Born in Alabama, Ms. Herman received her bachelor's degree from Xavier University in New Orleans and did graduate work at the University of South Alabama. She spent most of her adult life working in programs to help minorities, women, and young people to improve their economic status, serving as a social worker, guidance counselor, community outreach worker, program developer, administrator, and consultant. Ms. Herman came to the Bureau from Atlanta, where as national director of the Minority Women Employment Program of R-T-P Inc., she implemented programs to place minority women in white-collar jobs in 10 cities and to place women in nontraditional blue-collar jobs in 4 other cities. She developed the original model for MWEP under the auspices of the Southern Regional Council in 1972. During her directorship, the Bureau mounted new programs to help low-income and young women with employment related problems, cooperating with the Office of Youth Programs in a Demonstration School-to-Work Project for high school girls in urban areas. It increased efforts to improve opportunities for women in nontraditional occupations, backed by new Federal affirmative action programs, pressure on apprenticeship programs to open their ranks to women and amendments to the Comprehensive Employment and Training Act, which greatly enhanced its benefits for women workers. The Bureau continued research to define the increasingly varied target groups within its mandate of "working women," so as to better represent and fulfill their special needs. It focused anew on the special needs of women who work in the home and of older women, pushing for adult education programs to facilitate entry or reentry into the workplace for widowed, divorced, or single-parent women. Ms. Herman and the Bureau sought to strengthen linkages with the private sector, as well as other Government agencies in pursuing its mandate. She wrote in a 1979 article for the Labor Law Journal: "Such linkages are critical to the success of both anti-discrimination and human resources programs because one effort opens doors for women by eliminating artificial barriers to their employment in occupations and industries where they are excluded today, and the other effort assists in the training and referral of qualified women." But there remained many policies that had not yet been corrected: "However, the successes that have been realized in these two areas have not been paralleled by an increased awareness that policies must be reshaped to fit today's realities in the other two broad policy areas . . . family support systems and inequities in the impact of traditional policies governing health, retirement and labor policies . . . these policy areas have not received the same priority . . . and they have not been related t an overall policy to provide support systems to families . . . As earning responsibilities are shared, many families view child rearing as the responsibility of both (mother and father) . . . Likewise, much remains to be done in reevaluating health, retirement and employment policies formulated for a different set of social values and realities." Ms. Herman also represented the Department of Labor and the U.S. at many national and international conferences. She was delegate to the UN Mid-Decade Conference on the Status of Women at Copenhagen and at the OECD's first ministerial conference on the status of women in Paris. On both occasions, the Bureau issued publications informing the public on issues addressed and solutions found in the U.S. The Bureau also contributed to the work of the National Advisory Committee for Women, 1978-1979 and the President's Advisory Committee for Women, 1979-1980. Up until six years ago, there weren't a lot of women doing what I do--but those women who started really paved the way. I have very few problems now from my male co-workers. Mostly it's a matter of curiosity. They say, 'Why do you want to do this work?' Well, first, I love the work and I'm good at it. And second, I bought a house last year. I could never have done that in my old job." --Juanita Edwards, journeyman press operator, Washington, D.C., early 1980's. LENORA COLE ALEXANDER appointed by President Ronald Reagan served 1981-1986 Dr. Lenora Cole Alexander, the ninth woman to hold the Bureau directorship, offered a strong background in higher education and public service on behalf of minorities and women. She earned her three degrees, culminating in a doctorate, at the State University of New York at Buffalo. While holding various teaching and administrative positions in higher education in Chicago, Buffalo, and Washington, D.C., Dr. Alexander promoted programs for the counseling of women and minorities and sought ways to create new opportunities for them. Prior to her appointment to the Bureau, she served as vice president for student affairs at the University of the District of Columbia (1977-1978) and vice president for student life at American University (1973-1977). At her appointment confirmation hearing before the Senate Committee on Labor and Human Resources, in October 1981, Dr. Alexander noted that the needs of working women had not departed greatly from the Bureau's original mandate of 1920, and pointed out that large numbers of women have been thrust into the labor market primarily for economic reasons. She cited statistics as background for Bureau programs she would promote or initiate: women constitute more than 43 percent of the Nation's work force; approximately 60 percent of all employed women are single, widowed, separated, divorced, or married to men whose earnings are less than $10,000 a year; 48 percent of impoverished families are maintained by women. She called women "a valuable and untapped reservoir of human and economic talent." "If fully utilized," she said, "they will be a force in providing workable solutions for many of the economic problems confronting American society. Given the opportunity, women will assist in developing the President's program to revitalize the Nation's economy." Dr. Alexander also stated her intention to "enlist assistance from the private sector in responding to the needs of working women. Over the years . . . the Bureau has developed and tested a number of demonstration employment and training models. ... Many of these models have great portability for use in the private sector and can facilitate a higher degree of elevation for the status of their women employees. The Women's Bureau is prepared to serve as a link in this type of effort." In addition to her duties as the Women's Bureau director, Dr. Alexander, like her predecessors, was responsible for ensuring coordination among all Department of Labor agencies on programs affecting women, and she served as the Secretary of Labor's principal advisor on matters relating to the employment of women. Under Dr. Alexander's leadership, the Bureau mounted a number of initiatives which were carried out through its Washington base in the Department of Labor and 10 regional offices across the country. Among those initiatives were efforts to promote employer-sponsored child care and to introduce child care at occupational training center sites, address the school-to-work transition problems of young women. and increase the gainful employment of women through job fairs and job matching services. A Bureau-produced videotape on employee-sponsored child care, "The Business of Caring," was a welcome accompaniment to the child care effort. The Bureau also worked more closely with women serving on corporate boards and in high-level management positions, to help others move up in the management structure. It advocated the interests of female entrepreneurs, whose numbers increased by 30 percent between 1972 and 1977 alone, totaling some 3 million in 1984. Through the Job Training Partnership Act of 1983, the Bureau broadened the target groups of women served by its programs; now it reached out more specifically to displaced homemakers, disadvantaged teenagers, dislocated workers, and the chronically unemployed. Dr. Alexander secured the Bureau's own line item budget authority for demonstration projects and increased staff at regional offices. The Bureau became more research oriented. To better identify issues and problems as they arise, it contracted studies on such topics as: employment-related needs of women veterans, immigrant women, dislocated women workers, displaced homemakers and older women, and the career transition problems of women in the professions. The Bureau also began a study of the persistence of poverty among working women in an expanding economy. On the international scene, Dr. Alexander and the Bureau cooperated with an ever-increasing number of organizations involved in developing policies for the welfare of working women in other countries. She worked with the ILO and the International Commission on Women, serving as a delegate to its conference in Cartagena, Colombia. She led the U.S. delegations to Paris for meetings of the OECD, Working Party No. 6 on the Role of Women in the Economy, on which she served as elected vice-chair. As a member of the U.S. delegation to the UN Commission on the Status of Women meeting in Vienna in 1983, Dr. Alexander played a leading role in planning the 1985 World Conference on the UN Decade for Women. She also attended the conference in Nairobi as a member of the official U.S. delegation. To observe the 65th anniversary of its establishment by Congress, the Bureau convened a national conference in Washington, D.C., in November 1985. Workshop themes included: achieving equity in the workplace, technology and women's employment, breaking the cycle of poverty, shaping job training and educational policies, and the world economy and working women. Participants also witnessed the premier showing of the Bureau's documentary film on working women from 1920 to 1985, "There's No Such Thing as Women's Work." Carrying on its tradition of preparing women for the future, the Bureau began exploring the impact of rapid technological change on women's job opportunities for the rest of this century and beyond. SHIRLEY M. DENNIS appointed by President Ronald Reagan served 1986-1988 The 10th director of the Women's Bureau, Shirley M. Dennis, brought to her post considerable management experience, a strong advocacy background, and a close association with women's interests and organizations. Her management experience began upon her graduation from Temple University in Philadelphia with a degree in Business Administration and continued throughout a number of positions. She was a Pennsylvania State official, serving in the Governor's Cabinet, prior to her Federal appointment. As secretary of the Pennsylvania Department of Community Affairs (1979-1986), Mrs. Dennis was chief advocate for the State's low-income citizens and for its more than 2,600 municipalities. Prior to her State post, she was chief executive officer of the Housing Association of Delaware Valley, a United Way-supported housing research and advocacy agency in Philadelphia; housing director of the Philadelphia Urban League; and equal opportunity specialist for the city's Redevelopment Authority, where she was actively involved in housing issues and wrote considerably on the subject. A year before she became director, Mrs. Dennis was a member of the Philadelphia delegation attending the UN Decade for Women conference in Nairobi, Kenya. Her role in international activities heightened after she became the Bureau's director; she represented the United States as president of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development's (OECD) Working Party on the Role of Women in the Economy, the first American to do so. When Mrs. Dennis began her tenure at the Bureau, she identified issues the agency would focus upon: work and family, women in nontraditional jobs, a "holistic" approach to welfare reform, flexibility in the workplace, and sufficient education and training to help women prepare for challenges of work by 2000. A number of activities were generated by or in response to a study, commissioned by the U.S. Department of Labor and prepared by the Hudson Institute, which projected the nature and composition of work and the U.S. work force for the 21st century. The report, "Workforce 2000," noted: between 1986 and the year 2000, 21 million new jobs will be created; women, minorities, and immigrants will fill 80-90 percent of the new jobs; women will account for 63 percent of that new labor force growth. Some other significant changes to be expect- ed are: the Nation will experience a work force shortage due to declining birth rates; there will be stiffer competition within the business community for skilled and educated workers; and flexible benefit packages will be required to serve the needs of two-career families, since 47 percent of the work force will be female by 2000. Further, the benefits will be needed to address child care, eldercare, and retraining needs to enable greater productivity and retention of workers. Mrs. Dennis spearheaded the Bureau's communication effort to spread this new information to the American people, especially to educators and training personnel, policymakers, employers, unions, and women's organizations, by sponsoring or participating in meetings across the country and distributing the Bureau's fact sheet, "Women and Workforce 2000." Supported by the new data about the future workplace, the Bureau focused new light on the interrelationship of women's responsibilities to work, family, and other pursuits. The Bureau progressed in its development of a Work and Family Clearing- house to help employers make informed decisions about options and benefits as they consider policies to assist employees with child care and eldercare. The clearinghouse, accessible by telephone or through correspondence~ began operation as a computerized data base of employer-sponsored child care options; it would be expanded later to include similar options for elder-care, benefit plans, and flexible leave policies and work schedules. There were other activities. Two Work and Family Expos for Labor Department employees offered information about support services to help ~hem manage their work and family responsibilities. The Bureau encouraged replication of the model event by other employers and employee groups. "Child Care: A Workforce Issue," the Department of Labor's report of the Secretary's Task Force, gave further impetus to the Bureau's long-time efforts to increase child care, and so did statistics which showed that, as of March 1988, 56 percent of mothers of preschool children were in the labor force. Recognizing that women will continue to seek ways to accommodate their multiple roles and that flexibility in the future work- place will he a key requirement, the Bureau set out to gain more insight into flexible workstyles or the "contingent work force," a growing force of part-time, temporary, or leased workers, and independent contractors. In 1987 the Bureau cosponsored a conference, "The Contingent Workplace: New Directions for Work in the Year 2000," to explore impact of the trend toward contingent work on women, who comprise the majority of part-time and temporary workers, and to consider other at-risk groups such as older workers--including those displaced by factory closings--minority youth, and immigrant populations. Mrs. Dennis expressed hope that the conference and the published proceedings "will stimulate further research, spark more public debate, and promote government, corporate, and union policies that will be relevant to the 21st century workplace and the needs of its workers." The Bureau advocated an approach to welfare reform that looks at the individual's total needs--not just job training--and then focuses community resources to help meet those needs, including health benefits, child care, and life and career planning. Toward this end, the Bureau worked with OIC's (Opportunities Industrialization Centers) and private sector enterprise to conduct demonstration project HOPE (Higher Opportunities for Partnerships in Employment), which embodied the principles of welfare reform advocated by the Bureau. Mrs. Dennis, in speaking before groups about the objectives of the project, imparted the Bureau's convictions: "We are convinced," she said, "that women on welfare need an opportunity to break out of isolation. They need contact with successful role models to help open their eyes and those of their children to the wide range of opportunities available to them." As a facilitator and advocate, the Bureau continued its role of sponsoring and participating in numerous conferences to encourage education and training policies and programs that promote nontraditional jobs for women in skilled trades, professional specialties, and upper levels of corporate management. Relevant fact sheets were updated and the Bureau published a new pamphlet, "Jobs for the Future." Mrs. Dennis and other Bureau staff met with leaders across the country to develop and refine the women's agenda for the decade of the 90's and into the 21st century. JILL HOUGHTON EMERY appointed by President Ronald Reagan served 1988-1989 Taking hold of the "bright torch" of leadership held by the 10 previous Women's Bureau directors, Jill Houghton Emery illuminated the concerns of women as well as the Bureau's programs and objectives to improve their employment opportunities. Her transition to the directorship was facilitated by her knowledge about the Bureau and its programs since 198~ Mrs. Emery had served first as deputy director and later as acting director. She came to the U.S. Department of Labor from the U.S. Small Business Administration, where she was director of the Office of Women's Business Ownership. An educator for 12 years prior to a career that spanned business, politics, and the Federal Government, Mrs. Emery earned a bachelor's degree from the State University of New York at Geneseo, where she continued graduate work. In 1987 she was selected for the Senior Managers in Government Program at the John F. Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University. She was president of the Emery Corporation, a business consulting firm in New York, before coming to Washington, D.C. In 1984 Mrs. Emery ran for Congress in the 34th Congressional District of New York, launching a campaign in which she narrowly missed defeating a 9-year incumbent in the second largest congressional district in New York State. Under Mrs. Emery's leadership, the Bureau directed special attention toward issues that are expected to shape the workplace of the future: child care, eldercare, flexible benefits, nontraditional jobs, training opportunities, and youth at risk. On behalf of workers who are trying to balance work and family responsibilities, the Bureau, through a multi-media campaign, formally introduced the expanded Work and Family Clearinghouse. Mrs. Emery enthusiastically noted that child care and eldercare options in this computerized data base have been promoted as highly attractive additions to employee benefit plans and successful aids for recruiting and retaining workers. She urged employers to learn what is available and what is possible in the new workplace for only "the price of an incoming phone call or the stamp on a written re- quest." To further assist employers with work and family issues, the Bureau published and distributed a "Work and Family Resource Kit" and a revised pamphlet "Employers and Child Care: Benefiting Work and Family." Other facets of the Bureau's work/family initiatives included: a research contract with the National Academy of Sciences/National Research Council to study employer policies and working parents, focusing on factors shaping employers' decisions and the advantages or disadvantages of alternative policies for employers and for workers in different family structures; and a project to address work and family needs of the Navajo, including training Navajo women as child care providers. Several projects to promote nontraditional jobs for women continued to receive collaborative support. Women in Highway Construction, a jointly funded project of the Bureau, the Employment and Training Administration (ETA), and Federal Highway Administration, is designed to identify barriers faced by women in the construction trades and to develop a program guide for use by State highway departments and con- tractors in recruiting and hiring women. ETA also joined with the Bureau in funding the second annual National Tradeswomen Conference. The Bureau began compiling a much needed resource, a directory of non- traditional training/employment programs. International cooperation continued to take an important place on the Bureau's agenda. Mrs. Emery, as deputy director, had led an American delegation of women to Israel and Greece as part of a Memorandum of Understanding between the two Labor Ministries, and had represented the United States in Paris, France, at an OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development) Conference on Lone Parenting. Now, as director, she continued to be a part of the Bureau's visibility on a global scale. Mrs. Emery took part in an international symposium in Munich, Germany, on "Achieving Parity for Women and Men in Europe and the United States." In collaboration with other departmental agencies, the Bureau supported an OECD study to examine skills required for jobs in the service sector. The seven-country study includes a series of papers focusing on financial, business, and health services, all of which have large concentrations of female workers. Responding to the diverse needs of its wide-ranging constituency, the Bureau initiated programs that ranged from help for teen parents to assistance for executives. Emphasis on helping at-risk youth included a teen parent employment demonstration program focusing on education, vocational training, long-term employment preparation, and support services. Another project, the Equity Training Model Program for public schools in one State, was designed to assist girls and young women with their developmental needs in career, educational, and personal/social areas. Executive women also face barriers. Career mobility of female executives in a variety of industrial, service, and government organizations was the topic of research initiated with the University of Kentucky. The research went beyond affirmative action programs to examine the more subtle individual and organizational processes that potentially limit or promote the career advancement of women. Under Mrs. Emery's directorship, the Bureau continued to highlight the implications of data that forecast the state of work and workers as the next century approaches. Commenting on the increasing work and family needs such as child care, eldercare, benefit packages, and flexibility in leave policies, work hours and work arrangements, Mrs. Emery invited employers to avail themselves of the Bureau's data resources to assist them. She suggested: "If you want to maximize your work force's potential, we've put together materials to help you modernize your human resources program. Do not be left behind, competitively speaking, in the 21st century." FACING CHALLENGES OF THE 1990'S As the final decade of the 20th century approached, labor market challenges of the 90's underlay Bureau efforts to help women overcome obstacles and take hold of opportunities. Activities continued to move forward during the interim between departure of the Bureau's 11th director and arrival of the 12th. Under the leadership of acting directors, the Bureau demonstrated its commitment to help women face today's challenges and prepare for those looming on the horizon. Priorities for action were in four broad areas: balancing work and family responsibilities, training and retraining to acquire skills needed now and in the future workplace, affirmative action in managing a diverse work force, and safety and health in the workplace. The challenges of reconciling work and family responsibilities form a huge umbrella of concerns that relate to child care, elder- care, flexible leave policies, alternative work patterns, and benefit packages. Inherent in the mission of addressing these issues is the challenge of accommodating workers' needs and meeting employers' business objectives at the same time. The Work and Family Clearinghouse, an initiative toward that end, provides employers with options they can offer workers to ease work and family burdens and thus help to maximize productivity. The clearinghouse continued to expand with more data on dependent care, flexible policies, and other categories. The computerized data base is accessible by telephone or through written request. The Bureau also carried the message about work and family issues and the future workplace around the country through a variety of forums: roundtables, conferences, speeches, publications, and one-on-one consultations. These dialogues increased understanding of the adjustments required in order to meet both work and family needs. Training and retraining pose challenges not only for women entering the work force for the first time but also for career women in jobs which are becoming more sophisticated or may be replaced entirely due to technological change or job redesign. Bureau efforts addressed the challenges of: raising math and science levels; gaining access to training which leads to higher paying jobs; creating more opportunities for on-the-job training: improving the quality of training; meeting the need for support services for trainees, such as housing, transportation, and child care; increasing employer-based training for women in non-traditional careers; and enhancing school programs which promote nontraditional careers. A National Tradeswomen Network was set up to provide technical assistance and national representation, and to promote women in the trades. Managing a diverse work force and taking affirmative action to achieve greater integration of women into all levels of the work force remain challenges in the 90's. Women still lack opportunities because of sex, race, age, ethnic origin, disability, or pregnancy. The Bureau's long-term efforts to achieve equality for women have received a new thrust as the numbers of women, minorities, and immigrants in the work force have increased and are expected to continue to increase into the next century. Some of the projects, such as symposia, are intended to heighten awareness and sensitivity of managers: awareness that they must design and implement human resource systems which recognize that workers' backgrounds and values differ in a multicultural environment, and that the ability to understand and effectively accommodate ethnic, racial, and gender differences is necessary to maximize productivity and achieve business success. Bureau programs also addressed occupational segregation at all levels and constraints of the "glass ceiling" for women professionals and executives--that invisible barrier which prevents women from moving up and into top management. The challenges of safety and health in the workplace of the 90's relate largely to technological change. The Bureau continued to be concerned about the impact of automation on clerical workers, especially as related to video display terminals and ergonomic problems. Chemicals in the work environment constitute additional concerns. Other health and safety issues are being identified by health care professionals, computer-related occupations, pharmaceutical companies, food service industries, and care giving professionals. These are but some of the challenges facing workers, families, and employers that the Bureau addressed in 1989-1990. To aggressively face the issues and to undertake these and other programs, the Bureau kept pace with legislative and economic issues affecting women. It followed legislation--from the origin of a bill, through the review and comment stages, and on to passage or defeat--and frequently issued legislative updates or publications. The Bureau also kept apprised of statistical data which indicate women's employment situation, shape significant trends, and otherwise have implications for women workers. Subsequently these data were analyzed and shared. The international arena was active. On the Nairobi World Conference on the Status of Women, the Bureau continued to follow up on the results with its constituent groups and with governmental agencies. Again the Bureau represented the United States at the OECD meeting of the Working Party on the Role of Women in the Economy, and continued to support efforts of the Organization of American States Commission on Women (OAS/CIM). Yet another important event occurred. In the fall of 1990 the Bureau paused briefly to reflect on its proud seven decades of history. An important asset in planning for future progress is the knowledge and recognition of past achievements. So the 70th anniversary observance was also a time to gather momentum for facing the challenges of the 90's, and then forging ahead into the 21st century--already characterized as an era of change for the workplace, society, and the global marketplace. ******************* A Chronology of Women's Labor and Women's Bureau History Selected Events from the Turn of the Century to the Present The history of women's participation in the American labor force begins long before the Women's Bureau was established in 1920. The following timeline, while by no means complete, highlights some major events in the facilitation of women's contributions to the national economy through wage-earning work from the beginning of this century to the present day. 1903 National Women's Trade Union League (WTUL) established at American Federation of Labor convention. 1905 Illinois branch of the WTUL passes resolution to seek Federal investigations of working women's conditions. NWTUL lobbies with other women's organizations in Washington, D.C. 1906 Bill introduced to fund such reports. 1907 Bill passes; several investigations conducted over 3 years, authorized by Secretary of Commerce & Labor, yield 19 volumes of reports unveiling poor conditions, health, and wages of women workers and recommending establishment of a permanent agency to watchdog and set standards. Women's groups continue to lobby for such an office in the Department of Labor. 1911 Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire disaster in New York City focuses national attention on dangerous conditions under which women work. 1913 Department of Labor separates from the Department of Commerce and establishes a Women's Division as a sub-division of the Bureau of Labor Statistics. It is not effective at the policymaking level due to lack of strong mandate and adequate organization, hut does publish informative materials on segments of the women's labor force. 1916 Jones-Casey bill introduced for establishment of Women's Division in the Department of Labor, but does not pass. Women continue to lobby for four more years. 1917 Council of Defense sets up Committee on Women in Industry, comprising WTUL and Consumers League members, to advise it on means of safeguarding the welfare of women workers during the war. Board of Labor Standards and U.S. Railway Administration set up women's branches, as does the Ordnance Department, the latter to oversee women's work in munitions plants. In July, the first draft of American men to fight in World War I begins to cause shortages of labor. By the fall, the U.S. Employment Service launches campaign to replace men with women in "every position that a woman is capable of filling." A post- Armistice Women's Bureau study showed that while 14,402 women were employed in 562 plants engaged in metal production (other than steel and iron), before the first draft, the figure rose to 19,783 thereafter, and to 23,190 employed in 558 plants after the second draft. 1918 June, War Labor Administration sets up a "Woman in Industry Service" to meet the problems connected with more rapid introduction of women into industry. A month later, Mary Van Kleeck, a WTUL activist, moves from the Ordinance Department to direct the new agency with Mary Anderson as assistant director, and Helen Brooks Irvin as an experienced organizer of black women workers. WIS sets to work to formulate standards for employment of women in war industries, including a 48 hour work week, equal pay, lunch breaks, and sanitary and safety precautions. By August, defense departments begin to include these in war contracts, although many contractors did not observe them. In its five months of existence before the Armistice, the WIS was successful in promoting better working conditions, if not equal pay, for women and it continued to publish detailed reports and guidelines based on the WWI experiences of women and employers until it was transformed into the Women's Bureau in 1920. 1919 One of the most militant years in U.S. labor history. An epidemic of strikes breaks out across the country caused by continued rise in cost of living and post-war economic recession as the country shifted from war to peacetime production. Women and minority workers are among the worst affected by economic problems and cut-backs in jobs; they join in strikes. First International Congress of Working Women meets in Washington, D.C. It later becomes the International Federation of Working Women with the promotion of trade union organization among women as its main priority. 1920 June S: Congress establishes the Women's Bureau in the Department of Labor with a staff of 20 and a budget of $30,000, under the directorship of Mary Anderson. The WB immediately begins its field investigations. Analysis and recommendations on national, state and industry trends affecting women at work begin to emerge. Some titles published in 1920: "Night-Work Laws in the U.S., 1919"; "The New Position of Women in American Industry"; and "Industrial Opportunities and Training for Women and Girls." Two months later, the 19th Amendment becomes the law of the land, giving women the right to vote. 1921 WB reports on "State Laws Affecting Working Women"; "Health Problems of Women in Industry"; "Women Street Car Conductors and Ticket Agents"; "Women's Wages in Kansas," among others. 1922 WB investigates "Negro Women in Industry"; "The Family Status of Breadwinning Women"; "The Occupational Progress of Women." 1923 Alice Paul of the National Woman's Party introduces the first proposed amendment to the Constitution on equality for women. WB reports on "Women's Contributions in the Field of Invention" and co-sponsors a Women's Industrial Conference. Federal Government Classification Act passes; an equal pay victory for WB, which exposed hiring and wage discrimination versus women in a 1920 report, "Women in the Federal Government." The new law establishes that Government salaries should be determined by job duties, not sex of employee. 1924 WB reports on "Married Women in Industry"; "Domestic Workers and Their Employment Relations"; and "Women in Alabama Industries." 1925 Rose Knox, president of Knox Co., producers of gelatin for food and industrial purposes, begins to oversee her profitable business "in a woman's way." She institutes one of the first 5-day work weeks, keeps her plants clean and pleasant and wins enduring loyalty from her employees. WB reports on "Home Environment and Employment Opportunities for Women in Coal-Mine Workers' Families" and "Standard and Scheduled Hours of Work for Women in Industry." 1926 WB investigates "Women in the Fruit-Growing and Canning Industries in the State of Washington"; "Lost Time and Labor Turnover in Cotton Mills"; "Effects of Applied Research upon the Employment Opportunities of American Women"; "Women Workers and Industrial Poisons." 1927 WB reports on "Industrial Accidents to Women in New Jersey, Ohio and Wisconsin"; "The Development of Minimum Wage Laws in the U.S., 1912-1927." 1928 WB reports on "State Laws Affecting Working Women"; "The Employment of Women at Night." 1929 WB publishes findings on "Negro Women in Industry in 15 States"; "Conditions of Work in Spin Rooms", "Women Workers in Flint, Michigan." As the depression hits America, Anne Ronnell is paid ~25,000 for writing the song, "Who's Afraid of the Big Bad Wolf?" 1930 WB reports on "Variations in Employment Trends of Women and Men"; "A Survey of Laundries and Their Women Workers in 23 Cities"; "Industrial Home Work"; "Women in 5- and 10-cent Stores and Limited-Price Chain Department Stores"; "The Employment of Women in the Pineapple Canneries of Hawaii." Ellen Church, United Airlines, becomes the first airline stewardess. 1931 WB publishes "Industrial Experiences of Women Workers at the Summer Schools, 1928-1930." Verne Mitchell, aged 19, becomes the first woman to pitch baseball for an organized male team--Chattanooga Baseball Club. 1932 Section 213 of the Federal Economy Act requires that one spouse resign if both husband and wife are working for the Federal Government. A Women's Bureau study later shows that more than 75 percent of those resigning were women. Section 213 remained on the books until 1937. It is but one of many public and private pressures on women to give up "pin money" in favor of the working man in the depression, despite the reality of women's responsibilities for their families' support. WB reports on "Women Office Workers in Philadelphia"; "The Effects on Women of Changing Conditions in the Cigar & Cigarette Industries"; "The Employment of Women in Slaughtering and Meat-Packing." 1933 Frances Perkins is appointed first woman Cabinet member, when named Secretary of Labor. WB reports on "Women Workers in the Third Year of the Depression--A Study of Students at the Bryn Mawr Summer School"; "Effects of the Depression on Wage-Earners' Families: A Second Survey of South Bend"; "A Study of Change from 8 to 6 Hours of Work." 1934 WB investigates "The Age Factor as It Relates to Women in Business and the Professions"; "The Employment of Women in Puerto Rico"; "The Employment of Women in Offices." 1935 "A Survey of the Shoe Industry in New Hampshire"; "Employment in Hotels and Restaurants"; "Employment Conditions in Beauty Shops." 1936 More WB reports on "Women Unemployed Seeking Relief in 1933"; "Piecework in the Silk Dress Industry"; "Re-employment of New England Women in Private Industry"; "The Employed Woman Homemaker in the U.S.: Her Responsibility for Family Support." 1937 "Women's Hours & Wages in the District of Columbia in 1937"; "The Legal Status of Women in the United States of America--Summary and State by State." 1938 Fair Labor Standards Act sets mini- mum wage, maximum hours without over-time, standards to protect workers in most poorly-paid jobs. This law improved working conditions and reduced the need for the WB to carry out field investigations on basic conditions, freeing it to expand its scope to other issues affecting women workers. Mary Anderson and the WB made major contributions towards the passage of this bill. WB looks back on "Women at Work: A Century of Industrial Changes." 1939 WB publishes "Conditions in the Millinery Industry in the U.S.A."; "Standards for Employment of Women in Industry--Recommended by the Women's Bureau. " 1940 Slightly more than 11 million women are holding jobs. War in Europe stimulates U.S. production, but men, not women, are first beneficiaries of more jobs. WB issues reports on how women could contribute to upswing and recommends training programs to prepare them for future calls from industry. 1941 Government programs begin to "warm up" unemployed in heavy industry, but most employers still believe women are not suited for a high proportion of available production jobs. After Pearl Harbor, the U.S. enters World War II. A Fair Employment Practices Commission is established to help alleviate discrimination against blacks in war production. Black women especially press to escape from domestic and agricultural jobs into more lucrative factory employment. 1942 As draft begins to decimate the ranks of male workers, the Government issues a nondiscrimination directive, reversing depression-period restrictions on employment of women, especially married women. Many gains in protective legislation for working women are also waived in favor of wartime needs. For first time, employers actively seek out women workers for nontraditional jobs and some offer services--day care, meals, transportation-- making it easier for women with families to work. WB publishes a series of 13 reports on women in various wartime industries, as well as "Equal Pay for Women in War Industries"--which was not the practice in many cases. By mid-year, War Manpower Commission starts a campaign to actively recruit women in labor shortage areas. National War Labor Board issues an order "permitting" employers to equalize wages paid to women with those paid to men for work of comparable quality and quantity; Federal government lowers legal working age for women from 18 to 16. 1943 War production Board announces a need for 1.5 million more women workers within a year. 1944 Between 1940 and 1944, more than 6 million women join the civilian labor force, though fully 75 % of all women working for wages during the war had worked before. By mid-year, the WB had al- ready begun studying the effect of cut-backs in employment of women, as employers prepared for postwar slowdown. Some women began to quit their work voluntarily, many others who preferred to stay were harassed by employers. The Bureau recommended full employment and equal wages for men and women, as part of the reconversion process. Women joined unions in large numbers during the war, in spite of resistance from some trades. Before the war only some 800,000 women belonged to unions (9.4 percent of total union membership). By 1944, more than 3 million were union members (22 percent of total). 1945 More than 19 million women worked for wages sometime during the war emergency years. With the end of World War 11, the WB focuses on postwar employment opportunities for women and begins its involvement with United Nations organizations relating to women and economic development. Women's Bureau and the WTUL wage an aggressive campaign for a House-sponsored Women's Equal Pay Act. 1946 WB publishes its analyses of World War 11 industrial experiences for women and begins a series of reports on women workers in other countries. 1948 Economic & Social Council of the UN adopts the principle that women should receive the same pay as men for equal work. WB publishes "Handbook for Women Workers" and looks at "Working Women's Budgets in 12 States." Some 17.2 million women are employed in the civilian labor force; a drop of 2.4 million from the all-time war period high of 19.6 million in July 1945, but an increase of 835,000 over the 1947 total of 16.3 million. 1949 Union of Electrical, Radio and Ma- chine Workers sponsors first postwar conference of any major union on the problems of women workers. WB publishes "Outlook for Women in Police Work." Miranda Smith, a 40-cent-an-hour tobacco worker becomes the first black woman to serve in the executive councils of a national union, as Southern Regional Director of the FTA. 1950 18 million working women, nearly half of whom are married, make up 29 per- cent of the workforce, and 32 percent of the working age female population is working. The postwar period saw a drop in young married workers, but half again as many women age 45-54 were working after the war as before. WB publishes "Women in Higher-Level Positions" and starts a series on job opportunities in social work, following up on a postwar series on jobs in medical and health-related occupations. 1951 WB reports on "Part-time Jobs for Women. " 1952 A coalition of civic groups, women's organizations, labor and employer organizations, including the WB, form a National Committee for Equal Pay and hold a conference. WB publishes the conference's report, along with its own papers on "Women Workers & Their Dependents" and "Maternity Protection of Employed Women. " 1953 WB reports on "Older Women as Office Workers" and "Employed Mothers and Child Care." 1955 White House Conference on Effective Use of Womanpower, in which WB plays major role. Director Leopold describes it as the "beginning of new efforts on the part of the U.S. Department of Labor to develop our country's manpower to the fullest." It explores sex-stereotypes as limits to opportunities for women and presents suggestions for increasing women's labor participation. WB publishes the conference report, and "Employment Opportunities for Women in Professional Accounting." The last of the local branches of the WTUL dissolves itself, on the basis that most of the League's functions have been assumed by the unions. The AFL and CIO merge. 1956 WB reports on "Employment Opportunities for Women Mathematicians and Statisticians"; "College Women Go to Work--Report on Women Graduates, 1956." 1959 WB promotes "Careers for Women in the Physical Sciences." 1960 Working women make up 33 percent of the national labor force; 30.5 percent of married women work for wages, contributing about 26 percent of total family income. One-third of all wage-earning women hold clerical jobs. Nearly 80 percent of wage-earning women hold jobs stereo- typed as "female" and the gender-gap in earnings widens--median annual earnings of women fall to 60 percent of the rate for men. 1961 President's Commission on the Status of Women established to investigate participation of women in key areas, including employment. WB takes an active role in studies and recommends ways to overcome sex discrimination in employment. 1962 Presidential memorandum bars discrimination against women in Federal Civil Service hiring and promotions policies. 1963 Congress passes the Equal Pay Act, requiring most companies to pay equal wages regardless of sex to all those performing equal tasks. "American Women, An Invitation to Action"--report of the Presidential Commission--is presented. The Feminine Mystique, by Betty Friedan, examines the causes and effects of the underemployment of educated American women. 1964 Congress passes Civil Rights Act, including Title VII, which prohibits firms with 15 or more employees from discriminating on the basis of sex, among other characteristics. Establishes Equal Employment Opportunity Commission to coordinate efforts to implement the law and to conciliate disputes. Shortly thereafter, the EEOC is flooded with sex-discrimination complaints. 1967 Age Discrimination in Employment Act bars discrimination against workers age 45-65. 1968 Executive Order 11246, as amended by 11375, prohibits discrimination in employment on basis of sex, among other characteristics, by all employers with Federal contracts over $10,000, and requires them to file affirmative action programs. Standards Administration to Office of the Secretary of Labor. 1979 For the first time, more than half of all women aged 16 and over are participating in the labor force. Labor force participation of white women has risen rapidly to virtually the same as that of black women. Executive Order 12138 establishes national Policy on Women's Business Enterprise, directing Federal agencies to establish goals for contract awards to women-owned businesses. WB begins funding model programs for career counseling and occupational training of displaced homemakers, women without recent paid work experience or evident marketable skills, who must begin to earn their own livelihoods. WB director testifies for amendment to Title VII of Civil Rights Act, banning discrimination in employment based on pregnancy. 1980 More than 40 million women in the workforce, but 80 percent of working women remain in traditionally female jobs. Sexual Harassment Guidelines reaffirm that sexual harassment is an unlawful employment practice, clarifying what constitutes such harassment and employer responsibility. WB participates in Organization for Economic Cooperation & Development (OECD) Conference on the Employment of Women/Paris, the first cabinet and ministry level meeting of officials from 24 member countries to address women's issues. WB participates in UN Decade for Women Conference in Copenhagen, having previously sponsored two regional meetings in the II.S. to assess progress and develop strategies for remainder of the decade. 1981 Economic Recovery Tax Act increases tax credits and maximum expenditures for child care and excludes employer-provided child care benefits from gross income for tax purposes, expands eligibility definitions and makes provisions for division of IRAs that benefit married, divorced women workers, and homemakers. 1982 WB launches effort to expand use of its model program--"Women in Nontraditional Careers" (WINC)--training school counseling staff, providing classroom instruction on labor market opportunities, and exploring jobs in local communities. Using a WB-produced curriculum guide, regional workshops held over several years result in 30 schools and colleges incorporating the WINC approach. WB, recognizing that mothers of pre- school children are the fastest-growing segment of the labor force, makes establishment of employer-sponsored child-care systems across the country a priority initiative. Publications, conferences, workshops are sponsored, and technical assistance provided to encourage company and community-based responses to employees' needs. WB also produces a video-tape "The Business of Caring," which presents various options used by employers. 1983 Job Training Partnership Act replaces CETA as primary federally-funded job training program. Its goal is to move disadvantaged or dislocated workers to permanent jobs in the private sector through the cooperation of the public and private sectors, with an emphasis on local administration. WB publishes a guide to JTPA benefits for working women and sponsors workshops to promote its effectiveness. 1984 Emergency Mathematics and Science Education and Jobs Act provides set-asides for special projects for underrepresented and underserved populations, including girls and women, from funds provided to State educational agencies. Retirement Equity Act of 1984 makes it easier for women workers and surviving spouses of workers to collect retirement benefits under private pension plans. Carl D. Perkins Vocational Education Act reauthorizes Federal funding for vocational education, targeting over half the funds allocated to States for programs for special needs groups, primarily women. 1985 WB sponsors national WINC conference for key professionals interested in encouraging young women to pursue non- traditional occupations. WB begins replication of Project Discovery, a pilot program to help first-time job seekers or those seeking to reenter the workplace, focusing on minority women aged 35-50. 1985 World Conference, UN Decade for Women, Nairobi--WB director participates as member of U.S. delegation. WB publishes a report on the major economic and legislative accomplishments of the U.S. during the Decade for Women. WB begins new series of publications on impact of technology on office workers and conducts research to help women veterans take advantage of their military experience in new jobs. 1986 Work and family becomes a primary thrust for WB; related issues are delineated and fact sheets issued on Caring for the Elderly and Alternative Work Patterns. Tax Reform Act of 1986 removes many working poor from tax rolls and gives higher standard deduction to single heads of household. Age 70 ceiling removed in Age Discrimination in Employment Act. Higher Education Amendments allow Pell grants to part-time students; provide grants to establish on-site child care for low income students first in their families to attend college. National Science Foundation Authorization Act establishes 3-year interagency task force on women, minorities, and the handicapped in science and technology. First U.S.-Israel seminar on women's issues in Israel--part of Department of Labor's Ministry to Ministry Program. Topics covered work and family, child care, single-parent families, and women's labor force participation. 1987 In July, Department of Labor issues its contracted report by Hudson Institute, "Work-force 2000: Work and Workers for the 21st Century," which alerts Nation to economic, demographic, and labor force changes projected to occur by the year 2000. Women projected to account for nearly two-thirds of net new labor force growth; minorities to account for next largest group of new entrants. Child care emerges as key work and family issue. WB holds conference on child care support programs and WB director provides congressional testimony on programs. "Computer Chips and Paper Clips,"published by National Academy of Sciences, is presented to Congress and fed into Department of Labor task force report on technological change. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Paris, France, begins study of lone parent families at suggestion of WB. 1988 WB director (Dennis) is first U.S. citizen elected president of OECD's Working Party on the Role of Women in the Economy. U.S. supports 7-nation study of employment and training issues related to the service economy, with special emphasis on contingent workers--who are largely women. Industries studied include hotels and restaurants, retail sales, and banking. Work and family continues to be primary issue; "Child Care: A Workforce Issue," report of the Secretary's Task Force, is published; WB initiates research with National Academy of Sciences to begin a 2-year study of employer policies that impact various kinds of worker families. Family Support Act strengthens child support enforcement, provides education, job training, and work programs with expanded child care and Medicaid benefits. Omnibus housing measure funds program to establish child care facilities in public housing projects. Women's Business Ownership Act amends Equal Credit Opportunity Act to add certain business loans to those already covered and, along with SBA Reauthorization bill, funds demonstration projects to provide training and management assistance to women in business or entering business. Illiteracy is identified as major factor in skills gap foreseen among new entrants and retraining workers. WB issues fact sheet on "Women and Workforce 2000." Civil Rights Restoration Act restores broad scope of coverage and clarifies application of Title IX of the Education Amendments and other nondiscrimination laws pertaining to entities receiving Federal financial assistance. 1989 In January, WB formally introduces, through a multi-media campaign, its Work and Family Clearinghouse. Development of the computerized data base was begun in 1987 and continues to be expanded and updated. Secretary of Labor Elizabeth Dole issues order reaffirming WB role in coordination of all Department activities affecting women; WB policy, programs, and research address major goals throughout Department. WB issues its revised publication "Employers and Child Care: Benefiting work and Family." Departmental Task Force on Child Care Liability is established. Task force report on nurses is issued by Department of Health and Human Services; apparent shortage of nurses actually is result of increased demand for nurses' skills in a wider variety of health care programs, decline in numbers graduating from U.S. schools, and low pay and prestige accruing to these professionals. WB task force identifies methods and programs for recruiting and training additional health professionals. Organization of American States Commission on women (OAS/CIM) holds experts' meeting on women in the labor force and the impact of the world economy on the economic status of women in the hemisphere. 1990 Americans with Disabilities Act extends to people with disabilities protections from discrimination in employment and public accommodations similar to those provided on the basis of race, sex, religion, and national origin by the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Fifth year post-Nairobi review of the status of women held in Vienna by UN Commission on the Status of Women. WB announces its first competitive demonstration projects research process; projects and research agenda were published in the Federal Register.